Standardization of writing Charlemagne develops the use of writing as a means of disseminating knowledge, and particularly the use of the Latin language. Based on the British scholars like Alcuin , the Latin medieval becomes uniform and incorporates new words (with Greek or Germanic roots) to serve as an international language. Around 770, the development by scribes Abbey Corbis write a new, little Caroline saves in readability because the words are separated from each other, and the letters are better trained , . Workshops copy ( scriptoria ) develop in the Carolingian abbeys: St. Martin of Tours, Corbie, Saint Riquier ... Knowledge exchange across Europe. In the late eighth century and the beginning of the ninth, it was thus copied Hippocrates in St. Gallen, Pliny Corbie, Saint-Gall Saint-Denis, Dioscorides in Fleury-sur-Loire, Galen at Fleury-sur Loire and Saint-Gall, Columella Corbie, Palladius St. Gall and St. Denis, Isidore in Tours, Fleury, Luxeuil, St. Gallen, Apicius in Tours, Marcellus in Fulda, itself copied in the North East of France in the early ninth century , Cassiodorus Tours, Corbie, Saint Gallen, Saint-Denis, Alcuin at Tours, Fleury and St. Gallen, Vitruvius at Jarrow , Fulda and Reichenau , , ...
Standardized accounting and monetary
Due to a trade deficit with the Muslim world (either directly or through Byzantium) , and reduced trade with the Mediterranean world due to loss of control of the Mediterranean by Byzantium, the decrease in cash gold requires the adoption of a coin struck with a mineral abundant in Europe more than gold. On the other hand it takes a lower value currency transactions adapted . Trade Development around the North Sea causes the minting of money by the Frisians and Anglo-Saxons from 680 . At the beginning of the reign of Pippinides, different parts of the empire use different currencies, which hampers trade. In 755, Pepin the Short takes control of Dorestadt and workshops coinage curls, King asserts its monopoly to coin money ordering the striking of a silver denarius standard, adorned with his monogram .
In the same spirit, established by Charlemagne in 794 chapter, a system based on a mass of money: the book corresponds to a weight of 409 grams of silver . It is based on coins of the Roman Empire: the solidus or sols, and deniers. A pound is 240 denier. A ground (a penny) worth 12 pence or one-twentieth of book tournaments. Also circulate obols (half penny) and Pictish (quarter penny) . The ground and pound are used as money of account: a "ground flour" is the amount of flour that you can buy funds with 12 . This standardization of the currency facilitates commercial transactions across the empire and thus increase trade between different regions. An economic revolution is launched, the use of money is accelerating and is attested to even modest trade . One implication is that it becomes profitable to produce agricultural surpluses that can be sold. The way is open to the demographic development and the gradual transformation towards a more commercial, craft and city.
The Carolingians take other measures to promote trade: they maintain the roads, promote shows, ( Charles Martel authorizes the creation of rural markets in the vici of 744 ) ... However this trade is closely controlled and taxed , since prices are set 794 and the export of weapons is prohibited. This allows the sovereign to recover input tax and valuable products for maintenance of his vassals.
Cultural policy
Under his reign, there is a rebirth, called the " Carolingian Renaissance ", which is to examine the legacies of the ancient civilization in a spirit of Christian.
To stimulate and maintain the Christian values in his empire, Charlemagne adopted an ambitious cultural policy:
- An extensive education program is implemented by the chief adviser of Charlemagne, Alcuin , setting up schools, as part of the liberal arts , transmitted from the Late Antiquity by the Venerable Bede ,
- Libraries grow and multiply: Charlemagne also puts in place an imperial library at Aix-la-Chapelle
- The liturgy is Benedict Aniane after the end of the reign of Charlemagne, from the Benedictine order ,
- We saw that theology grows too ( Alcuin , Theodulf of Orleans )
- Charlemagne restored the philosophy and the study of Latin authors and Plato , he stimulates his court,
- The art of manuscript greatly enriched in the scriptoria , with Carolingian minuscule , the illuminations
- We construct a large number of cathedrals (about 80) throughout the empire, with a highly finished art of the goldsmith , the frescoes and mosaics inspired by the Byzantine art.
- Historical studies reappear with Paul Deacon , Einhard.
Consequences
In 877 Charles the Bald died. His reign has been one of the artistic zenith of the Carolingian Renaissance. But the dissolution of the empire gets worse, of ecclesiastical offices are given by lay princes eager to reward their vassals. The Church fell into a crisis even deeper than the seventh century . The revival will be a total lasted a few decades and the ambitious program of cultural renewal desired by Charlemagne had only a superficial penetration of society. It affects mainly the clergy and the aristocracy. The teaching of the priests which Charlemagne had one of its priority have only very partially been successful . However the conversion to Catholicism of the West is a success, paganism is fast receding, even though the Church had to adapt and accept the multiplication of the cult of relics and saints, leading to proliferation of pilgrimages (the pilgrimage to St. Jacques de Compostela began around the year 800). Of economic and structural developments, however, are still very visible launched. The institution of the silver denarius and soon transformed the economy of society, Europe is in the feudal age ...
Feudalism
Charlemagne presents Durandal Roland
To maintain the unity of the empire, Charlemagne introduced the ceremony of recommendation which required an oath of vassalage. He closely monitors his vassals who are regularly inspected by Missi Dominici and are convened annually from the field. On the other hand, he conceded that the charges for life which made it possible to recover the land after the death of his vassal, which allows him to avoid progressive loss of possessions and maintain leverage over vassals which land tenure precarious granted may be withdrawn. But his son Louis the Pious upsets the balance between land tax and land tenure granted to the nobility . Therefore, it is no longer rich enough to maintain his vassals and nothing bridle their natural inclinations of independence. More military campaigns become less frequent after 820 and controls by Missi Dominici are becoming scarce and increasingly less effective (they become expensive to maintain, are corruptible and travel times are tough) : the Control vassals is more loose. Moreover Charlemagne had the habit of assigning the land vulnerable to the son of his vassals to death of them. Gradually, the inheritance becomes a habit and the feeling that the earth and expenses belong to the sovereign declines. This state of affairs even worse when the son of Louis the Pious tear each other for power and should grant more autonomy to preserve their vassals for their support
The reign of Charles II is symptomatic. After the partition of Verdun (843) among the three son of Louis the Pious , Charles the Bald inherited the Frankish kingdom in the west, but he needs the consent and support of the aristocracy to truly enter into possession of his kingdom. At a meeting held in Coulaines in November 843, he granted them "the peaceful enjoyment of their function and their property" and in return they give him "advice and assistance" . He tries to keep the imperial authority by allying to itself all the means in particular the support of the clergy whom he concedes the possibility of coining money. The final transition to feudalism is in the Chapterhouse Quierzy-sur-Oise , 16 June 877 when he assures his vassals the right to bequeath their land to their heirs.
Mutation of the agricultural society
From 800, military campaigns are becoming more scarce and the French economic model based on the war is no longer viable . Agriculture is still largely based on the ancient model of large estates cultivated by slaves. But they have low productivity (because not interested in the results of their work) and are expensive in season . When peace comes, many are free men who choose to lay down their arms to work the land more profitable. They entrust their safety to protect against resupply his troops or his house. Some manage to maintain their independence, but most give up their land to become their protector and operators of tenure (or manse) on behalf of the latter . In the opposite direction, the slaves were emancipated serfs in managing land and paying their master by a portion of their production or chores, and become more profitable (these moves are even better that the Church condemns slavery between Christians). The difference between free peasants and those who are not diminished. The coinage of silver for several generations, and homogenization in 781 by Charlemagne is an enormous step forward more suitable than gold which is only suitable for very expensive transaction, the silver denarius allows the introduction of millions producers and consumers in the commercial circuit . The farmer can sell the surplus, it is interested in producing more than it takes to survive after having donated a portion of its output to his lord . This results in many clearings and improved techniques: passing the two-year rotation at the three-field , use of fertilizer, the appearance of shoulder collar and horseshoe ...
Similarly landowners as lay clergy provide plows, invest in productivity enhancing equipment: water mills (replacing the wheels arm used as labor was servile), oil presses or wine (in Replacement Walk) ... Yields increased from 4 to 1 to 5 or 6 to 1 . The use of water power instead and animal or human productivity can not be compared with that available in antiquity: Each wheel of a watermill can grind 150 kg of wheat per hour which is at work of 40 slaves . These developments emerged from the workforce for other activities. The public is better protected from food shortages and consequently epidemics: mortality declines. The introduction of the currency and a fixed-amount tax has another effect: it becomes interesting to have children as a result of surpluses generated they increase the agricultural production capacity and are seen as less mouths to feed. Population growth and increasing agricultural production in a self-sustaining virtuous circle: they are the key to the medieval revival. This metamorphosis is gradual, its effects are still very visible in the ninth century to the extent it is quickly curbed by feudal wars and invasions, but the agricultural revolution is the germ and is fully realized when they stop at Tenth century.
Growing Cities
Marketable agricultural surpluses generate an enrichment of some operators and emerge from the workforce for the craft or trade: The cities grow many towns are created. A chapter of 743 indicates that there is no market in each diocese, one hundred years later Charles the Bald should ask each count to list the market in their county . The trade relationship between town and country is growing and a secondary road network is created, the density of the communication network is from the tenth century incommensurate with those of Roman roads that serve as major routes . If the agricultural revolution brought about by the spread of the currency, sees its effects slowed initially by the invasions of the ninth century , they have the paradoxical effect of accelerating the process of reorganization of large estates and land clearing and swell the urban population .
Strengthening economic and political influence of the abbeys
The intense development of monasticism with the common rules (see Benedict Aniane ), the introduction of a write-once ( Carolina ) more readable, facilitate knowledge transfer and prepare the thrust cultural, technological and demographic XI century. Initially, the disorders caused by incursions Vikings, Saracens, or Hungarian, and looting and private wars of the nobility inherent in emerging feudal system, greatly hampering the economic and cultural exchanges. Many loads Episcopal parish or abbey are entrusted to the laity and clergy fell into a deeper crisis than even the seventh century. But the big missionary work has borne fruit and abbeys that continue to behave in an irreproachable moral extraordinary gain prestige. Culture is no longer rising, but the abbeys preserve their cultural heritage and scriptoriums Carolingian deep in their libraries. At the same time, the dissolution of the state, strengthening the abbeys which are the spearhead of economic Frankish kingdoms. They are more likely to successfully overcome the tutelage of the local nobility and can elect their own abbot. These are organized into a religious order around Cluny and acquire a political and economic power of first order: They are able to tenth century , to discipline the nobility by the movements of the Truce of God and the peace of God and support the creation of stable states around which dynasties eventually dominate the organization patronage prevailing in the context of birth of feudalism. In a word, they will drive the rebirth of one thousand.
Acceptance Geographic
The lands covered by the Carolingian Empire of Charlemagne is a term meaning permissible Christian West medieval.
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See also
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