Celtic
The Celts are a civilization proto . A succession of conquests and migrations lead until Galatia , Asia Minor.
The definition of Celtic culture is still a problem today. The language criterion is often cited as defining the Celtic culture , like other ancient peoples such as Germans or Slavs. If we accept the criterion of the vernacular, the Celtic culture is attested by Roman sources between the Garonne and Rhine and in Britain. What that leaves uncertainties about the culture of "Celtic" outlying areas such as the Iberian Peninsula , the Italian or Turkish.
The Celts have a rich culture that flourished during the Iron Age. The Celtic art tends towards abstraction, today appreciated. The Celtic culture of the late La Tene lasted until early medieval Irish. Unaware of unit policy , the Celtic tribes are independent of each other. Celtic society has nevertheless laws , and customs , a Celtic religion and rituals that bring them closer. We know them mainly through ancient texts Greek and Roman , in particular through the comments on the Gallic War of Julius Caesar. Medieval texts clerics Welsh and Irish have given us an abundant literature dealing with the Celtic mythology , the royal virtues and heroic deeds.
This is probably their inability to unite and build political entities larger than the city or confederation of peoples who had lost: it seems that, like the archaic Greeks, the Celts have had a horror of centralism and have known that temporary alliances based on patronage. Celtic civilization disappears by acculturation after the Roman conquests and their submission to the Roman Empire in the first century BC, except in the British Isles and particularly in Wales , in Scotland and Ireland.
Summary |
That the Greeks that we owe the first ethnographic concerning the Celts. It would Hecataeus who in 517 BC, would have talked about the first of the Celts. The word ' is attested from the sixth century BC and the third century. It is remarkable that these two terms refer to the Greeks sometimes the Celts, the Germans now. The Latin word Celtus (pl. Celti Celtae gold) would have been borrowed from Greek. elto and Celtic or Celtae were reconciled to the Germanic-Hildi "war goddess of war" or the Latin celsus "high". There is no consensus among experts on these etymologies .
Historical sources
According to Herodotus , the Celts are in areas ranging from the Pillars of Hercules to the Danube in the mid- fifth century BC. AD , that is to say the Iberian Peninsula to Romania via France , north of Italy , of Germany , the Bohemian (traditionally known as the region of origin Celtic) of Moravia , the Slovak Republic , the Serbian , the Austria where the presence of Celtic populations in nature is confirmed, and Hungary.
Diodorus Siculus and Strabo suggests that the Celtic heart was in the south of France. The first says that the Gauls lived north of the Celts, while the Romans considered the Celts as the Gauls also. Before the discoveries of Hallstatt and La Tene, it was generally accepted that France was the center of the southern Celtic ( Encyclopedia Britannica, ed. 1813). The Greek historian Ephorus of Cumae , writing in the fourth century BC. J.-C, believed that the Celts came from the islands in the mouth of the Rhine and were "driven from their homes by the frequency of wars and violent floods of the sea". Hecataeus who was the first to review the existence of the Celts we mention that Narbonne is a town Massalia while Celtic is a city of Liguria near the Celtic.
At the end of the fourth century BC. BC , the Greeks face the Galatians. In -310 , the Celts led, inter alia, Molistomos , through the Balkans and won the Asia Minor near Byzantium. They were defeated and incorporated into the Roman Empire -187 .
Julius Caesar mentions the Celts:
- Julius Caesar , Commentary on the Gallic Wars
"Gallia omnis is divided in partes tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquitaine, which tertiam ipsorum lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellantur."
Other ancient historians, contemporaries of the Celts and who tell their story or that conflicts with Greek or Latin nations include: Diodorus Siculus ( Bibliotheca Historica ), Strabo (Geography), Pomponius Mela (De Chorographia), Lucan ( The Pharsalia ) or Pliny the Elder (Natural History). These accounts often give a negative image of the Celtic peoples, given the bellicose relations they maintained, and ignorance of their neighbors.
Between the eighth century and the fifteenth century , the recording by Irish clerics in the Middle Ages, the oral traditions of Ireland complements the ancient sources. Myths and epics of Celtic Ireland were previously transmitted orally from generation to generation. From this period date the transcript of Cath Maigh Tuireadh (Battle of Mag Tured), the Tochmarc Tin (Tin Woo), the Tin B Cailnge (Razzia cows of Cooley), the Lebor Gabla renn (Book of the conquests of Ireland ) and the Mabinogion Welsh. Collectors transcribers these myths, however muffled a Christian veneer.
For the archaeologist Kruta Wenceslas , "The Proto-Celtic group would have occupied the second millennium BC. AD vast territories of Central and Western Europe, from southern Bohemia and the western part of Austria until Atlantic regions . "
Archaeological sources
The Civilization of Hallstatt
The Hallstatt (from -1100 to about -400, Late Bronze Age) or early Iron Age is a period succeeding the Late Bronze Age. It derives its name from an archaeological site located at Hallstatt in the Salzkammergut in Austria.
This period is characterized by bronze swords and great swords of iron. Riders long sword, order previously unknown, appear sporadically in the tombs, surrounded by rites and accompanied items - beverage service, exotic products imported coal falls, gold - which foreshadow the symbols of the new ruling class. The use of the horse is one of the attributes that distinguish those in power. The women's graves provide many ornaments, brooches large, exuberant taste typical of the era. The rich graves have often impressive bronze service consisting of buckets, situlae (buckets at the edges closed) basins and cups.
The Celts establish strongholds on oppida dominating large areas. Among the most important, a dozen appear to play an important economic and political, and constitute a powerful federation of communities organized on the same model, in southern Germany, Switzerland and eastern France: Hohenasperg, north of Stuttgart The Heuneburg near Sigmaringen Uetliberg, near Zurich, Chatillon-sur-Glne, near Freiburg, Britzgyberg Upper Rhine-Saxon Sion Meurthe-et-Moselle, Mount Lassois Cte-d'Or Gray-sur-Saone Haute-Saone, and the camp of the castle in Salins-les-Bains in the Jura.
La Tene
La Tene Iron Age or second, succeeding Hallstatt, marks the end of prehistory. It derives its name from an archaeological site discovered in 1857 in Marin-Epagnier, on the northeastern tip of Lake Neuchatel, at the mouth of the Thielle in the canton of Neuchtel in Switzerland. Attested in Central Europe and the West, some writers such as Massimo Guidetti ("Storia del Mediterraneo nell'antichit: 9.-1. Secolo aC" - p.141) challenge the annexation of the Iberian Peninsula to the culture .
Result of an internal crisis, the reorganization of trade channels or the struggles between the Greeks and Etruscans for control of trade, the citadels of the Celts of Early Iron Age, "lungs" of trade relations are abandoned one after the other to -500 in favor of a more rural lifestyle dominated by a warrior chiefs. Regions stand out as the new centers of civilization in the fifth century Celtic: Rhineland (Hunsrck Eifel culture, Bohemia, Champagne and the Ardennes). A slow evolution occurs in the customs and productions. You can find the Etruscan stamnos (wine vessel containing pure) in the rich tombs of the fifth century, La Motte-Saint-Valentin (Haute-Marne) or Altrier (Luxembourg). The mirror imported from Etruria, or imitation, is common in female graves (Uetliberg, near Zurich, La Motte-Saint-Valentin). The grave goods suggest a lesser social disparity between the powerful and the rest of the people. The Mediterranean imports fall, are less lavish jewelry. The graves of chiefs lose their monumentality, keeping their household type: the ceremonial dagger given way to the full range war, the two-wheeled cart, lighter and faster, replace the float parade.
If west, the Celts were defeated by the Romans led by Julius Caesar and the historical sources he has left us tell the story accurately, to the east, the Celts are gradually removed: the excavations of the oppidum Stradonice (Bohemia) were burned, presumably by the Germans in -9 and -6 graves suggest that develops a civilization on the Germanic lands.
Limitations of the Celtic world and controversies
Regions Rhine and the Germanic world
The contact between the Germanic and Celtic remains difficult to establish. The first puzzle appeared in the War of the Cimbri : What people seem to have migrated from Northern Europe (specifically the Jutland ) in the second century before Christ, and then defeated at the Battle of Aix. Although generally considered Germanic because of their region of origin, uncertainties about their language or culture have appeared, particularly because many antroponymes Celtic among their leaders (Henri Hubert - "The Rise of the Celts"). The Teutons appear in the texts during the Battle of Noreia (southern Austria). Always according to Henri Hubert, the junction point between the two groups would have occurred in central Germany near the Main , before his Germanization Celtic region in the middle of the first millennium BC. It is therefore possible that migration may have lead to tribal confederations mixing Celts and Germans, hence the uncertainty.
This is Julius Caesar who define precisely a few decades later the boundary between Celts and Germans in the Gallic War , limit set by the Rhine . The political aim appears to be settled, first by being too simple in this limit, partly by the fact that Celts and Germans were able to coexist beyond or below this limit (Alain Daubigney - CNRS - see page 155) . Serge Levuillon describes the limit of aberration in an environment where Celts and Germans were able to mingle and exchange culture and customs (p. 88) . According to Lucien Bely, the Celts were present beyond the Rhine ("Knowing the history of France"). The case of Belgium illustrates the problem in that nobody today can say how cultural group were related peoples of the region. Caesar interview itself uncertainty by not classifying the region nor in the "Celtic" or the "Germania". Studies place names, language or onomastic have never been able to clarify the issue. The various authors are divided between the option Celtic (John Loicq), with the option Germanic aristocracy Celtic (Ugo Janssens), and others lean towards a more recent theory called Nordwestblock defended by Rolf Hachmann, Georg Kossack and Hans Kuhn, and where the north-western European mainland have been a distinct culture of the Celts and Germans. Incidentally, the etymology of the Germans themselves would come (without certainty) of a tribe Belgian Celtic language, of "gair" meaning "neighbor" and "Maon" meaning "people" (Conrad Gessner).
Picts
The Picts were a people living in what is now Scotland in late antiquity. The origin and culture of the Picts are obscure, since few of their texts have been devoted ( Constantius mentions in the third century). Often considered as Celtic, it is not impossible that the Picts are growing pre-Indo-European. Proponents of the theory pre-Indo-European stress the fact that the Irish missionary Columba of Iona said he would need a translator to convert the Pictish king Brude mac Maelchon. This is not proof because the mutual understanding does not always exist between two languages of the same group. Assimilation by the Scots came from Ireland has made in the early Middle Ages.
Southern Europe
Several authors are skeptical about the term "Celtic" in southern Europe that has only a small archaeological heritage, and where the Celtic vernacular languages are not attested.
The questions aim to Southern Europe in general and particularly the Iberian Peninsula. If it is determined that Celtic tribes were able to pass through or settle in what is today Spain , the Portugal and Turkey , their impact on pre-existing crops remains questionable in terms of archaeological or historical. Some entries have been updated in Castile and Galatia , but it is unclear use.
Archaeologically, many authors and researchers still have doubts today about the real link between the Celtic cultures of Central and documented archaeological evidence found in Spain. Paul Graves uses the term "mythologizing" Celtic on the issue in Northern Spain in Cultural Identity and Archaeology: The Construction of European Communities (p.189-190) . Culture castros north-western Spain is not formally recognized as being related to Celtic hill forts in Central Europe and Great Britain . The distribution of Celtic chariots is concentrated in Europe and Central West, while the archaeological material is very rare or absent in the Iberian Peninsula and Italy .
The same problem exists in the historical or geographical names. Celtic toponymy is becoming scarcer in the south-west France, where were established the region Aquitaine , people of culture pre-Indo-European. Based on the small number of Celtic place names in northern Spain, Hector Iglesias concludes that the Celts were probably formed in this region, scattered groups or aristocratic, but never a majority . Many names are closer to Galician toponymy Basque and Pyrenees, including the etymology itself of Galicia.
If ancient sources sometimes use the term "Celts" to refer to certain peoples living in Italy or in northern Iberian Peninsula, no real evidence that these people were of Celtic language. In fact, a link between archeology and culture is already a source of controversy. For Kruta Wenceslas ("the formation of Europe Celtic - State of the matter" - 1999 - see p. 5 and 11), make a link between the presence of archaeological material and culture is the "speculation" . Pierre-Yves Milcent has a similar view . About Celtic culture in the Iberian Peninsula , authors such as Friedrich Putzger, Angus Konstam and Francisco Villar excluded or continue to exclude these regions of the Celtic .
Even in regions that claim a Celtic heritage, such as Galicia , Beatriz Diaz Santana Hector Iglesias express serious doubts about the impact of the Celts , Barthold Georg Niebuhr Jean-Jacques Prado ( p.212) , the dictionary (see "ancient city") , Marcel Le Glay, Jean-Louis Voisin and Yann Le Bohec in "A History of Rome" (p. 6) .
Celtic mercenaries were also used in Greek or Egyptian armies, especially under the reign of the Ptolemaic Dynasty.
In this context, it is more appropriate for these areas to talk about "presence Celtic ( Iberian Peninsula , Turkey , Italy, North ...) as "people" or "Celtic culture".
Dissolution of civilization
In II E-first century BC, the Celts on the continent are subjected to the combined pressure of the Germans in the east of the Romans to the south and the thrust of the Dacian Empire (until its collapse at around 35 av. J.-C which allows the installation of the Celts in Noricum in Bohemia) to the east.
Following a call using Marseille , Celtic tribes threatened by neighbors, Rome annexed the Narbonne in the last third of the second century BC. AD
Invasions by armed bands (migrating Cimbri and Teutons in 113 BC. J.-C) and population pressure from the Germans cause migration of Celtic peoples to the west, like the Helvetians led by their king Orgetorix and engender tensions with the Gauls. It is this last factor that causes the Gallic Wars and marks the end of Celtic independence on the continent from -58. The intervention of Caesar would have been justified, he writes, by the desire to return home to Helvetii not leave Germanic tribes across the Rhine to occupy the Swiss Plateau. When in fact the main motivation was to prevent Caesar, as he wrote himself, installing Helvetii in Gaul in the west, where they could threaten the Provincia (Southern Gaul, conquered by Rome around 120 BC.).
Occupied by the Roman conqueror who has interfered in politics Gallic part of Gaul rises in January -52. After the defeat at Alesia in the Gallic coalition leader, Vercingetorix , Gaul is entirely occupied. Latest opponents are defeated in -51 to Uxellodunum where they fled.
In the first century AD, the island of Britain (now Great Britain ) was conquered in turn: therefore, the Celtic civilization survives more than Ireland , north of Scotland. The Helvetia is Germanized between the fifth and sixth century. The people of Brittany, part of which at least retained the use of the Gaelic language and Irish is Christianized after the Third (the V for Ireland ) and evolve to give birth to the Irish, Scots, Bretons, Welsh and Modern Cornish.
The evangelization of Ireland
In Ireland the Celtic civilization lasted the longest, its insularity is considered the main cause. The Roman legions had not crossed the Irish Sea , the Gaels have not undergone this acculturation , even if relations with the Roman Empire existed from the first century BC. AD
This is the conversion of the Celtic peoples and, first of their elites, in Christianity , which brought Ireland in Medieval Europe. Change of religion but no priestly class: if the Druid goes, druids are converted and become the first priests of the new church. The addition of new courses at Celtic substrate will give rise to what we call Celtic Christianity.
The conditions of evangelization are poorly known and the sources we have are largely hagiographic. In 431 , Pope Celestine I sends a Gaul , named Palladius to evangelize the " Scots ". In 452 , the Roman-Britto Maewyn Succat, known by the name of St. Patrick , who landed on the island. It seems that the former has mainly worked in the Leinster and the second has evangelized in the Ulster and Connaught. Patrick is reputed to have driven the snakes from the island and explained the holy trinity with the example of the cloverleaf. The Celtic Society of type theocratic Art The Celts have left very few written records of their civilization, this is our best known through their art, largely rediscovered in the second half of the twentieth century. The art of the Celts is diverse according to times and regions. It is not, either, free of outside influences: Etruscan , Greek , Scythian , then Latin and finally Germanic and Christian. However, some major characteristics distinguish it definitively from the art of other civilizations that were in contact with the Celtic culture area: A major characteristic of Celtic art is domination or anthropomorphic motifs from nature, such as interlacing, and a tendency to abstraction. Following the schematic Hallstatt , this trend reached its peak through the illuminations of manuscripts of Celtic Ireland and Scotland from the Christian period island, such as the famous Book of Kells (see also the monastery of Iona ). If the Celts knew the writing and sometimes used, they preferred to the oral transmission of knowledge, whatever the field, so he must study the Celtic area from external sources or late. The construction of shrines for religious purposes is a fact very late in Celtic as they appear at the third century BC. AD. In times past, the cult governed by the priestly class of Druids , was done in sacred spaces in nature ( nemeton Gaulish language means "sacred" nemed Gaelic) as the clearings, the proximity of sources. Lucan , in the'' Pharsalia ''(III, 399-426), gives us the description of one of these places with a place strictly forbidden, reserved for gods. The site Burkovk ( Bohemia ) and boasts many character votive objects, but is free of any construction. It is also possible that the megalithic like Carnac (department of Morbihan in Brittany ) or Stonehenge (county of Wiltshire , England ) have been reused by the Druids for purposes of worship. Build fences around paddocks and buildings comes at a time when the Celtic civilization begins to decline. The most famous of these sites is that of Gournay-sur-Aronde. In the era before the Roman conquest of Gaul, and apparently it later in the islands, the major characteristic of the religious practices of ancient Celts is Druidism. The word is specifically Celtic druid from "dru-wid-es" which means "very learned". The existence of the Druidic priesthood is attested in several ancient authors, for different times and different places in the Celtic world. Thus, in the tradition of Irish Druidism appears as a creation of Partholoniens , arrived in Ireland 312 years after flood Religious Calendar According to Irish sources, the Celtic year was marked by four major religious festivals in the binding, including two majors: Samhain October 31 or November 1 (depending on our schedule) and Beltaine April 30 or May 1, and two Minor: Imbolc 1 or February 2 and Lugnasad August 1 . The major source that informs us about the Celtic calendar is the calendar of Coligny , which dates back to Gallo-Roman. One of the most difficult to address, in the absence of primary sources, is the spirituality of the Celts. They should have a pantheon at least as developed as that of the Greeks and Romans (nearly four hundred figures of gods Celtic are identified), but nothing indicates that this pantheon was homogeneous across the field Celtic, or that he possessed a unique structure. However, the main Gallic deities described by Caesar find themselves under their own names in the Irish mythological texts of the Middle Ages, with the same functions. The authors cite a few Latin and Greek gods of Gaul, without stating the reasons that drive their selection: Epona , Taranis , Esus and Lugh are well known. Toponymy gives us few clues about the beliefs of the ancient Celts. Thus, it is believed that Lug was revered in places of high altitude. The toponym Lugdunum (or mountain fortress of Lugh) is directly behind the name of the city of Lyon. The place of deities in Celtic art is problematic. It has long been regarded as major archaeological evidence about the gods of the Celtic Gundestrup cauldron , found in a bog in Denmark. But the latter, which represents a number of deities and discusses several myths common to most ancient peoples in Europe is not immune to external influences. In any case, it represents a horned god that can be associated with the Celtic god with stag's head, Cernunnos and divinity to the sun wheel in which one can see a representation of Taranis. In sculpture, it has repeatedly been shown figures of divinities or two-headed three-headed, which have been associated with Hermes. It is certainly likely that the ternary rhythm has possessed a religious dimension to the ancient Celts. Statues of warriors seated, "invented in the south of Gaul (Entremont Roquepertuse), are subject to debate: it is unclear whether they represented gods, warriors and heroes deified guardian. The same problem of interpretation arises for some busts of the "Hairy Gaul" whose shape is reminiscent of the top of a totem pole, as the brass discovered Bouray-sur-June, in the Essonne region, which represents a torque figure with stylized deer and legs, or one in the Muse de Saint Germain-en-Laye, limestone representing a character with torque and wild boar. Similarly, the exact meaning of certain names associated with deities is more difficult: Teutates (which inspired the famous Toutatis of Asterix ) may not designate a particular god, but the tutelary deity, protector of a people, Celtic people who each possessed its own deities, some dating to pre-Celtic prehistory. The immortality of the soul was one of the beliefs of the ancient Celts, which may explain the evidence on their bravery and fearlessness in battle, as fear of death was missing. In contrast, the notion of reincarnation is to be deviated from their religion, this suggestion was due to erroneous readings . The Celts also believed in an afterlife. In the Irish tradition passed to the Christian era, the Sidh means the Celtic it lies to the west, beyond the horizon of the sea in the beautiful islands, under the sea, in lakes and rivers which are lavish crystal palace entrances mysterious; in the hills and mounds. This is the residence of the Tuatha D Danann. In rituals, human sacrifices, the worship of severed heads, or the abundant use of blood in places of worship are the traits that have captured the imagination of ancient writers. One of them, Pausanias , the Celts even accused of cannibalism. Julius Caesar , very sensitive about, written about him: The thematic organization gives only the general direction of the works listed, most of them on different topics. 
Religion and mythology
Druidry
Deities and beliefs
Bibliography
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