• 1.2.1 The globalizations
• 1.2.2 An inescapable phenomenon?
• 1.2.3 Globalism

• 1.3.1 Design Unit
• 1.3.2 Design conflictual and pluralistic

The term "globalization" appears in the French language in the early 1980's . It originally means the only movement of expansion of markets for industrial products at the level of geopolitical blocs of the Cold War. Long confined to the academic field, it spreads over the 1990s , first under the influence of theories of emergence of a "global village" by the philosopher Marshall McLuhan , and especially through the motions globalists and anti-globalization , which attract, by their very name, the public's attention on the magnitude of the phenomenon.

In the Anglophone world, the popularization of the term globalization and its use as a catch-all accentuated the academic debate. It is now accepted that the term refers to the development of global interdependence. From this general definition of each major current academic focus on the dimension that seems most relevant. For example, some scholars such as Manuel Castells focus on the link between economic and social dimensions. Others, like John Urry , emphasizing the increasing complexity that characterizes all human exchanges (economic, cultural and political). Also, the term and its popularity are related to development issues, as shown in January Nederveen Pieterse . The controversy that shook the academic English reflect the existence of a global debate. Urry is English but Castells is Spanish and Dutch Pieterse.

The terms globalization and globalization and the meaning attributed to them are based on the views and current thinking enunciators.

The geographer Lawrence Carrou , expert on these issues calls for a clearer distinction of these two terms. For him, globalization can be defined as the historical process of expansion of the capitalist system throughout the world geographical space. He criticizes the use of too wave of globalization.

Origins and evolution

The distinction between these two terms is unique to the French language. The word English (U.S.) is Original globalization, taken by most other languages ^{Globalization}

Completely generic, the term globalization is a process history by which individuals, human activities and structures policies see their mutual dependence and exchange materials as immaterial increase over significant distances across the planet. It consists of the growing interdependence of economies and contributes to the expansion of trade and interaction human .

The globalizations

The genesis of the term explains that this process is most often considered as one aspect of economic globalization , development of trade in goods and services , increased since the late 1980s through the creation of financial markets worldwide. However it adds:

• appearance culture brings access to a very large part of the world population to elements of culture populations sometimes very remote one hand and also the realization by developed countries in their full diversity of cultures worldwide .
• appearance policy that represents the development of international organizations and NGOs .
• appearance sociological globalization summarized by Zygmunt Bauman , sociologist and professor emeritus of the University of Warsaw and Leeds: "Globalization is inevitable and irreversible. We already live in a world of interconnection and interdependence on a global scale. Anything can happen anywhere affects the lives and future of people everywhere. When assessing the measures to adopt in a given location, take into account the reactions in the world. No sovereign territory, so vast, populous, however rich, can protect itself with its conditions of life, safety, long-term prosperity, its social model or the existence of its inhabitants. Our mutual dependence is exercised globally (...) " .
• the geographical aspect: globalization is a reality that space is now widely studied by many geographers including Lawrence Carrou. It does not reflect a unified world or the disappearance of the territories but rather the double logic of integration-fragmentation resulting prioritization and strong polarization of the territories.

Strictly speaking, he should speak of globalization as well s to distinguish the relevant field ( economics , culture , politics ) and the historical period considered.

An inescapable phenomenon?

The inevitable or natural process of globalization is often put forward (see previous quote).

However, this idea is presented as a "misconception" by the movements of extreme left , may be qualified when looking more closely at the commercial and financial aspects of the phenomenon. Indeed, on one hand "the share of exports in world output in 1913 will be exceeded in 1970 and has stagnated since then," and secondly "the net flow of capital are now smaller than at the beginning the twentieth ^century " .

Thus, the columnist Martin Wolf , head of savings topics Financial Times , "if globalization is a myth, at least an abuse of language" .

Globalism

If globalization is a process that is reflected in the facts, globalism is an ideology. This affirms the inevitability of globalization and its incompatibility with the structure of the nation state , its inherent nature to want to bring lasting peace by establishing a world government through a humanism. Globalism as such does not constitute an ideology formed. It is found within the broader ideologies, from neo-liberal to the internationalism of the extreme left.

A shift of the meaning of meaning to its sole neo-liberal gave birth by virtue of anti-globalization and anti-globalization to refer respectively to currents of thought to limit the process of globalization or to modify the content.

Conceptions of Globalization

As soon as globalization emerged as global phenomenon, we sought to define it. Two designs, one can say "unitary" and "confrontational and plural" compete around the explanation of this phenomenon ^, .

Conception Unit

According to the unified concept, globalization refers to the notion of a united world, a world forming a global village, a world without borders. This approach in a geographical, ideological or economic. This view is supported by international organizations or international institutions (including the IMF , the WTO and others), by including the current ideological globalism. It is also shared by some analysts .

Define globalization as the unification of the world means that we talk about the interpenetration of cultures , the technologies and economies (integration into the global economy). Thus, expressions such as culture world or global civilization , global governance , world economy or global citizen is increasingly used.

If the unitary approach to globalization has the advantages of the XXI ^century (that is to say, progress and revolution in technology that enhances the physical integration, internationalization and expansion of financial flows , and the position of capitalism, the only economic system and the center of the world economy), it is followed, however, by fusing all the criticism about the market economy or capitalism.

The design defines globalization as the unification of the world adds an intellectual position which advocates more openness to achieve world peace, a total removal of borders. But even if this design would have the advantage of creating man in the seeds of hope, it would still be restrictive in that it neglects other manifestations of globalization.

Design and pluralistic conflict

Opposed to the unitary conception, design and conflictive pluralist considers the present form of globalization as the source of our problems. It highlights an approach to cooperation rather than of formal competition , which is the basic principle of the current form of globalization. The staunchest supporters of this view are the current anti-globalization and anti-globalization. It is also shared by some independent analysts. The problems with this approach to globalization are those of the heterogeneity of the inconsistency, fragmentation and integration, order and disorder, inequality, exclusion and solidarity , domination, exploitation, ideological clashes and human relations are often governed by power relationships.

This design has the advantage according to his supporters to understand a little more clearly the various elements of this phenomenon with multiple dimensions, while the first would be organized around a single point. Of being defended by anti-globalization, this concept is generally seen as an economic theory and social close to socialism , especially because it defends the poor. The vision of the global justice movement is more cooperation than competition between populations.

History

See also article economic globalization

If the word "globalization" is recent, however, it means different periods of history , some old .

Antiquity

Challenged until recently, the idea that a kind of similar to the globalization process has taken place during the ancient times is increasingly recognized by scholars ^{Before the seventeenth century}

The men of the ^seventeenth century or earlier centuries had representations of the world different from ours. Earth was populated by fewer than 700 million people. We can not really talk about globalization.

There is, however, that political events and cultural history major punctuate:

• Extension of the Roman empire , the unification of China , large population movements,
• Extension of the Byzantine Empire from the ^sixth century (emperor Justinian )
• Formation of the Carolingian Empire in ^the ninth century - ^the tenth century , Muslim expansion,
• Opening of trade routes from the late ^tenth century in Europe (see Pierre Riche , the term Europe was not yet used), the fairs of Champagne in the ^twelfth century , at that time, China has flourished under the Empire Song.
• The China launches between 1415 and 1433 expeditions to the African (Admiral Zheng He ).
• The Renaissance in the ^fifteenth century is accompanied by maritime trade in the North Sea in the Baltic Sea ( Hanseatic League ), and between the North Sea and the Italian ports, bypassing the Spain. In the ^sixteenth century will follow the great discoveries.

These changes are accompanied by a considerable extension of known space as well as economic trade, technological and cultural between civilizations.

The study of trade in goods of those times led to believe that the historiography of the ^nineteenth century has underestimated the importance of trade and material culture among civilizations to the far end of the Middle Ages. For example:

• The Silk Road existed long before the ^thirteenth century ,
• The detection of regular trade links between the region of the Baltic and Rome ,
• The discovery in China of Greek vases certify the existence of global movements of goods and ideas from the ancient world ,
• It can also give the example of the role of trade routes Arab on the Islamization of Africa ,
• There were also exchanges between India and the Arab world to the ^ninth century , leading to the gradual introduction in Europe of the system of counting decimal positional from the first millennium.

For the ^fifteenth century and ^sixteenth century , the movement of the Renaissance causes a great upheaval : the printing occurs, and Europeans make great discoveries.

During the Enlightenment , the dissemination of news , the awareness of the heliocentric theory , the industrialization and colonization cause other types of changes that Montesquieu's analysis in these terms: "Today we have three educations different or contrary: that of our fathers, that of our masters, that of the World. What we said in the last overthrows all the ideas of the first " .

The Industrial Revolution

Watt's steam engine.

The ^nineteenth century which, for historians, is the French Revolution to the First World War , is marked by the rise of the industrial revolution. There then lowering transport costs, with the generalization of the steam engine and the cost of communication with the telegraph. These two elements allow a better inter-connection of different parts of the globe and major transfers of people, goods and knowledge.

The ^nineteenth century also saw large flows of people globally. In Europe , the agricultural revolution of the peasants away from their campaign. Cities absorb difficulty with the sudden increase of the population of the old continent quadruple between 1750 and 1900. Westerners migrate en masse across the world ( Americas , Australia , Algeria ...). These population flows alter the depth distribution of the workforce worldwide.

Economically, the industrialization makes possible the development of trade in manufactured goods between industrialized and industrializing. The settlement involves the flow of raw materials from the colonies to Europe. The economic impact of these exchanges, however, is low compared to that induced by global migration.

The settlement also has the effect of integrating most of the planet in a common political space, and encourage the shifting of funds between countries and to the colonies.

In culture , the proliferation of travel books or patterns such as Orientalism or Japonisme show the rise in the European imagination of other cultures , themselves often undermined by colonization. Jules Verne made Phileas Fogg to do Around the world in eighty days , thanks to European technical genius. At that time, however, the globalism finds its first expression of magnitude on the base of Marxism with the founding of the International.

The chaos of the "short ^twentieth century"

The beginnings of the ^twentieth century were marked by a growing distrust with respect to world trade, leading to the decline in many countries on themselves at the expense of the globalization process.
The phenomenon began in the area where exchanges were most important, the human flow. By putting in place quotas on immigration ( in 1911 for Asian, 1921 for other populations), the United States abruptly stop the flow most important, while the Russian revolutions deprive Europe of a trading partner and financially.
Most countries erect barriers so important in order to protect their economies. This abrupt partitioning of physical and financial trading is an essential factor in the crisis of the 1930s , which marks the almost total shutdown of globalization.
The rejection of this process would exceed the simple economic plan to extend to politics, with the collapse of the League of Nations and a rejection of culture and foreign aliens themselves, who often turns to xenophobia.

The military view of globalization USA : geographic distribution of Joint Battle Command / A>. This global presence allows the projection of military power in the form most suited to the action required by the geo-strategy and tactics , forms the basis of all military interventions since 1947. This deployment contributes significantly to the public in the global perception of American Empire.

If the early twentieth ^century globalization slows, the second half of the ^twentieth recovery and accelerates the process. After 1945 , it reproduces very unevenly depending on the field. The reconstruction of Europe and the establishment of the Soviet bloc and the decolonization limit the scope of trade in goods and services. Globalization then falls rather in the creation of international organizations, UN , World Bank , IMF and GATT , as well as the generalization of the proceeds of culture of the United States , especially the cinema.

While the term is already used, it was not until 1971 that the exchange of goods found, part of GDP worldwide, their levels of 1910 and that really takes the global economy. Supported by lower transport costs, it essentially means the development of trade in manufactured goods between rich countries and newly industrialized countries ( South Korea , Taiwan , Brazil , Argentina ...), which represent 80% of world trade. Within the COMECON , the planning promotes even greater interchange of goods, largely in isolation vis--vis the rest of the world.

In the early 1980s , large geographical areas (Africa, most of Asia) and the primary sectors ( agriculture ) and tertiary (services) remain outside the process of economic globalization, while flows of population remain low. Furthermore, improved information flow and the relaxation of laws on foreign investment promote development of financial markets worldwide.

Aspects of contemporary globalization

Economics

The evaluation of the consequences of economic globalization has several components, highly contrasted by the wealth of the country.

Rich Countries

For rich countries , the economic globalization has two essential benefits. The first benefits the consumer , who has access to a wider range of goods (diversity) at a lower price than if they were manufactured in the country. Quantitatively, this effect is considerable, and can be seen by summing the gains to consumers in the purchase of Chinese textile products. The second benefit benefits holders of the capital , who get a better return on their capital.

The rich live on the other hand the relocation of their intensive industries workforce unskilled, and the competition increased between the rich countries themselves. Quantitatively small, these effects, however, pose problems because they are located, particularly affecting certain individuals or certain regions, while the gains are distributed throughout the population. That said, the share of the workforce to compete with the workforce unskilled in developing countries is only 3%.

However, the levels of science and technology of China and of India are converging very quickly to Western standards, and quality of telecommunications are as direct competition for active people holding the middle classes (outsourcing call centers for example ) and engineers (all major software groups have an antenna booming in India ). ^{Newly Industrialized Countries}

Until the Asian crisis , the newly industrialized countries appeared to be the biggest winners of economic globalization. Taking advantage of a skilled workforce, low cost, they have received heavy investment from rich countries like the financial aid given to Japan by the United States after the Second World War, which they have permit to construct a modern economy and a strong training system, out of poverty. The Asian crisis has shown, however, the extent of their dependence on financial markets prone to speculative excess as to the panic.

The balance of economic globalization for these countries is very well mixed, with one side of the country, like South Korea or Taiwan definitively classified as rich countries, others, Thailand , Philippines , are struggling to recover the volatility of investment, and others benefit greatly from globalization at the country level, but with a very uneven distribution of these gains ( Brazil , China ).

Poor Countries

Economically, the world's poorest countries remain largely outside the process of globalization. This in effect requires stable institutions, respect the right of private property, lack of corruption and some human development (health and education) that do not most of these countries. Their main economic resource, the agriculture remains dominated by protectionist policies in rich countries, except for crops specific to poor countries.

Financial aspects

The NASDAQ on Times Square at night ( New York )

After the Second World War the financial markets were fragmented and regulated nationally. Under the influence of different actors but also the IMF and World Bank ( Washington Consensus ) markets have suffered a triple evolution known as the "three Ds": deregulation (abolition of exchange controls and restrictions on capital movements) , disintermediation and direct access traders to financial markets without going through middlemen and opening-up (split compartments that existed). From the late 1970 an integrated capital market has gradually implemented globally.

Beyond the geographical aspects is therefore a new financial logic that has been established, which is why experts talk instead of "globalization" than just financial globalization. We can say that today a globalized financial sphere are taken within the global economy.

Globalization introduces an unprecedented explosion in the history of financial flows across the world, which is generated largely by the ease of trading computer on the web.

The financial globalization has facilitated the financing of enterprises and that of balance of payments. Removing barriers to the movement of capital has given unprecedented impetus to financial markets. It must however be noted that the real winners in the game of international finance are mostly modern multinational firms, the treasuries , credit institutions and institutional investors.

The risks of financial market development are numerous:

• Unlike the industrial logic financial logic favors the short term;
• Market volatility has increased, leading to an unstable interest rates and exchange rates ^Aspects cultural
  

  

  The English in the world. Dark blue, countries where English is an official or de facto official. In blue, countries where there is an official language (except Quebec), but not the first language spoken.
  

  

  McDonald's in Shanghai / At the peak associations of ideas that resentment relates to the Americanization, the phenomenon of McDonaldization of fast food , which itself has produced a vocabulary of the United States : the (in) McWords.

  Access to a growing number of individuals in networks of shared information and communication leads to two effects:

  • The first is making conscious of the increased cultural diversity and the interdependence of all individuals. Because of the proliferation of information sources , this is expressed by a better knowledge of environmental issues and global. The cultural face of global change: The Unesco to draw up a more documented ( Memory of the World list ) and more vivid ( Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity ). Of crops minority ( Native American , Bushmen ) were able to find a new visibility, while issues with an international dimension are the rise of NGOs as major players. Similarly, the strong mixing of religious and philosophical currents stimulated the ecumenical and interreligious dialogue. But conversely, communitarian identity based on a rejection of relativism and assertion of the superiority of one culture over others, have developed concomitantly.
  • The second is the emergence of a sort of " culture common "marked in particular by recourse to an" English Communication "(sometimes called Globish for overall English), weak version of the English language , references cultural American or Western products carried by cultural (film, music , television, computer ) or lifestyle (Western sports, Italian, Chinese ...). Some see a danger of loss of cultural diversity , or even the domination of a certain conception of social and economic relations. The term " universal civilization is itself subject to controversy. Some authors, including the Anglo-Saxon, do not hesitate to speak of a linguistic imperialism of the Anglo-American .

  Some authors do not hesitate to talk about "conflict, a war of influence mediated by culture, to enhance the ideological supremacy of the protagonists, like Daniel Lindenberg, for example, which states:" the culture war , theorized by neo-conservatives , has just begun " .

  Institutional and Policy

  Globalization, in granting its regulation primacy to international or national, can be read as an acceleration of a global phenomenon of economic integration started from the sixteenth ^century, uneven process geographically and progressive time scale. It creates new challenges and institutional distribution of political power across the world, and calls into question traditional concepts of international system.

  Some of the marginalization States

  The traditional tools of public policy , taxation and regulation , lose their effectiveness in environmental globalized. Their application then requests the cooperation of several States , always difficult to obtain and maintain.

  Globalization generates economic agents , means of information and financial flows whose scale is beyond the control of the structure of nation states. As a result, most governments bemoan their powerlessness in the face of these phenomena as international relations are not governed by rules other than the interests of States. At European , we must note the existence of a certain desire to harmonize the national accounts , to define a typology standard of economic agents in institutional units and institutional sectors.

  An evolving role of transnational actors

  The recent acceleration of globalization brings diversification and empowerment of transnational actors. It requires international organizations ( World Bank , IMF , OECD , World Economic Forum , G8 ) to redefine their words and actions .

  Of NGOs (nongovernmental organizations) are trying to fill that void, but they lack the legitimacy to claim to represent the citizens of the world , are often marked by ideological and partisan suffer a great lack of transparency in their functioning and in their action.

  For their part the unions have realized the importance of addressing labor issues in a global approach, by combining in an International Trade Union Confederation.

  Social and human aspects

  Today, about 3% of world population lives outside its country of birth. It is about 200 million immigrants who left their native country, taking account of the 6 billion people in the world.

  Migration

  Main article: human migration.

  Flows of human migration are permanently left out of globalization. In 2002 , the U.S. welcomed the number of immigrants the largest in its history , but their proportion in relation to its population is less than that of the 1920s. Across the world , population movements are quantitatively small. International mobility sustainable is the fate of the poor, displaced by wars , or the preserve of better trained to search for better remuneration for their skills.

  Income inequality

  Main article: Income inequality.
  

  

  Income inequality within countries, measured by the Gini coefficient

  Globalization highlights inequalities income within developed countries (officers / employees, skilled / unskilled) and between developed countries, developing countries and poor countries .

  Again, this inequality of income must not hide the fact that it tends to reflect significant differences in lifestyles.

  Tourism

  Main article: Tourism.
  

  

  Top 10 in 2001

  Rising living standards and lower transportation costs have contributed to the development of international tourism rose from 25 million in 1950 to 500 million in 2000. However, international tourism is mainly composed of citizens of rich countries visiting other rich countries (the poles and the poles transmitters receivers). The tourism towards the poor countries is often concentrated in a few locations, with a relatively small effect on the overall development of the host country.

  Ecological aspects

  Main article: Effects of international trade on the environment.
  

  

  The "curve Environmental Kuznets '
  The description of this controversial phenomenon found in rich countries, even some developing countries such as China recently, is permitted by an inverted U curve (ordinate local pollution and per capita income in abscissa)

  Risks ecological are also partly globalized and threaten the overall balance. Some aspects of environmental crises are global, including climate change and its various characteristics: greenhouse , risk of disruption of ocean currents, loss of biodiversity , deforestation , etc..

  Awareness of the ecological crisis has prompted scientists to think ecology globally, according to the formula of Rene Dubos ("think globally, act locally"): Experts of the global ecology speak for ecosphere of biosphere , ... Pushed by the NGOs , world leaders gather at the Earth summit to define policies for sustainable development. These policies have transpositions in the territories and businesses, seeking to cross the three aspects are the environmental human, social , and economic.

  Some approaches tend to understand the risks globally, according to their ecological, social or economic: the Kyoto Protocol , climate models and the work of IPCC , global standards on risks (resulting in databases accessible on the World Wide Web ) etc..

  Awareness of the uniqueness of the planet facing the problems of resources is a fundamental characteristic of the late ^twentieth century and early twenty-first ^century. Several events have indeed marked the beginning of the millennium in the economic, ecological and societal. Environmental issues now engage the responsibility of companies. They find expression in the development of non-governmental organizations ( WWF , Doctors Without Borders , etc..), which become focal points of business , among other stakeholders.

  These issues involve the need for globalization policies of innovation , in which knowledge and intellectual property are more important than mere communication tools.

  Hallmarks of contemporary globalization

  The current form of globalization of the late ^twentieth century and the twenty-first ^century based on two key factors :

  • low transportation costs in terms of differences in production costs (in economic sense), which affects the property,
  • lower communication costs globally, which affects the distribution in digital form information , including financial.

  Exchange of material goods

  The first factor explains the establishment of an international division of labor , since it can be profitable to manufacture goods in one country to transport and sell in another. The generalization of this method to the entire production process (a good is produced in several stages corresponding to many different countries) causes the growth of economic interdependence even stronger than the exchanges are. The France and Germany are an example. This phenomenon is essentially a continuation of what had been started in the ^nineteenth century.

  This process has its counterpart in the willingness of the richest countries to reduce tariffs between them and those on their products in less industrialized countries. The negotiations of the GATT and the World Trade Organization and see a substantial reduction of trade barriers and expand this process to the agriculture and services.

  Globalization of Information

  

  

  Internet users worldwide

  The big news of the globalization of the early twenty-first ^century is the creation of information technologies (ICTs) in open source or closed, also globally. With access to these tools, globalization affects both individuals and states or businesses, with a perception varies among individuals.

  The first effect of this technological change is the financialisation of the economy and development of multinational and transnational. The best information on cost differences between countries makes it possible for capital to flow without the intermediation of banks by allowing the establishment of markets internationally integrated.

  Unlike purely financial factors, the globalization of information technology type web , internet and other media directly affects individuals. The exposure to toxic cultural foreigners ( Japanese cartoons , Indian cinema, dances from South America ...) is no longer the privilege of an elite. She caught awareness of the diversity of cultures worldwide.

  Change of Representation

  We dimly perceive that globalization, which is accompanied by issues of sustainability , be the beginning of a new historical cycle.

  The philosopher Michel Foucault speaks of episteme to a worldview. He said our time would correspond to a new episteme , it calls' hyper . ^{Dominance of Anglo-American language}

  Globalization is accompanied by a domination of the " Anglo-American language , which manifests itself most acutely on the internet. In 1996 , there was an almost exclusive presence of English on the Internet , with 75% of websites in the world in English. In 2003 , this proportion dropped to 45% . Organizations altermondialists denounced in all-English what they consider to be a manifestation of linguistic imperialism American English is a vector of liberal globalization .

  The dominance of Anglo-American language is also evident across many socio-cultural influence American. The United States exert a strong influence in economic, financial, scientific, computer , and in leisure (music, cinema). This influence tends to spread the English language or promote loanwords ( anglicisms ) in other languages.

  This dominance of English is being felt even in the European institutions , particularly the European Commission. Since the enlargement of the European Union in 1995 , the use of English has overtaken that of French in EU institutions. In 2001 , 56.8% of pages received by the European Commission were written in English , 29.8% in French , 4.3% German and 8.8% in eight other languages community . And despite the fact that only 11.6% of the population of the European Union is English (as against 12% francophone and 18% of germanophones)

  According to UNESCO , 2500 languages of the approximately 6,000 languages spoken around the world are now in danger. At the dawn of the twenty-first ^century , so there is a significant threat to linguistic diversity worldwide.

  Notes

  Related articles

  General and historical aspects

  • World (universe)

  On the philosophical and social

  • Globalism
  • Hypermodernity | episteme | Michel Foucault ;
  • Hypermonde
  • Global Village

  On financial globalization

  • Financial globalization ;
  • World Trade Organization (WTO);
  • General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT);
  • Liberalism ;

  On international trade

  • Corporate globalization
  • Free trade and protectionism ;
  • Economic patriotism ;
  • Localism
  • Organization of international trade
  • Internationalization ;
  • Commercialism ;
  • World Trade Organization (WTO);

  On institutional, political, territorial

  • Corporate globalization ;
  • Economic geography ;

  On the anti / alternative globalization

  • Antiglobalization ;
  • Altermondialisation ;
  • ATTAC ;
  • CADTM.

  Some accuse the effects of globalization

  • Inequality of wealth in the world | Poverty | Exclusion ;
  • Effects of globalization on the environment ;
  • Immigration ;
  • Restructuring

  Bibliography

  • J. Adda, The Globalization of Economy, Vol.1 Discovery Insights, Paris, 1996.
  • J. Adda, The Globalization of Economy, Vol.2 Discovery Insights, Paris, 1996.
  • Ulrich Beck, Power and power-cons in the era of globalization Editions Flammarion, Paris, 2003.
  • Suzanne Berger, Our first globalization, Seuil, 2003, ISBN 2-02-057921-9
  • Suzanne Berger, Made in the world, New Frontiers in the global economy, Seuil, 2006, ISBN 2-02-085296-9
  • Jacques Brasseul, A Better World? For another approach to globalization, Armand Colin, 2005
  • Nayan Chanda, What is globalization? External Links
    • (En) (fr) Noam Chomsky on globalization
    • (En) Website of the Ministry of Economy and Finance for educational purposes
    • (En) Centre for Research on Globalization is an independent institute based in Quebec, brings together scholars, researchers, activists, producing numerous texts, analysis, study materials on the global economy, multinational corporations and the environment.
    • (En) Articles on Globalization , Yale University
    • (En) (es) (en) (de) (en) Study Group and Research globalizations - GERM , resource portal on contemporary globalization processes.

    References

    1. "Industrialization, its springs and its ideology stimulate real globalization of markets and the struggle between the" markets "Western" markets "Soviet" (Perroux, Econ. XX ^Century, 1964 p.286), cited by the Treasury of the French language computer
    2. Alain Rey (ed.), Historical Dictionary of the French language, IEEE, 1998 , p. 2273.
    3. Article in English Manuel Castells
    4. Article in English John Urry
    5. Article in English Hybridity
    6. Globalization: is it good or fear?
    7. (see Articles Culture , Cultural Diversity , Culture and Globalization )
    8. globalization finally has its cultural, political and environmental largest ... Globalization: is it good or fear?
    9. Le Nouvel Observateur - 24/30.05.07
    10. Little Breviary of ideas in economics, the conoclastes on page 56 and 63
    11. The global economy myth, quoted by " The conoclastes "
    12. This article discusses these theories "conseptual" Globalization: two contradictory expressions
    13. The World: plural and singular
    14. Globalization: two contradictory expressions
    15. The globalization - a process that gives, by dictionary definition, the various activities and aspirations of an "extension of interest to the world" - started long ago. Thousands of years before the appearance of the root word - "world" or "globe" ... What is globalization? This article is recommended for dating the phenomenon
    16. Montesquieu, Spirit of the Laws, IV, 1748
    17. Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes: the short ^twentieth century (1914-1991), 1994
    18. See the records of globalization appeared in Le Monde Diplomatique in January-February 2007.
    19. Robert Philippson, Linguistic Imperialism
    20. Daniel Lindenberg, New Economist, page 12
    21. Globalization: words and things - Lighting Policy
    22. While globalization has created unprecedented wealth, the left-nots were equally numerous. Those who have taken the greatest benefits of globalization are the industrialized countries ... The gap has also widened between rich and poor countries and between rich and poor within a country. What globalization?
    23. See for example: Risk management. Approach. AFNOR. 2002.
    24. The falling cost of communications and transportation have facilitated the growth of economic growth ... What is globalization?
    25. According to a UNESCO report, Measuring Linguistic Diversity on the Internet
    26. Robert Philippson in Linguistic Imperialism, and Suresh Canagarajah, Resisting Linguistic Imperialism in Teaching in Franais
    27. The linguistic imperialism. The English all-vector liberal globalization
    28. The languages of the European Commission
    29. http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/12/europe/rap-info/i0902.asp # P461_60334
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