Julius Caesar
Marble bust of Julius Caesar found in 2007 in Arles (see Portraits )
Dynasty	Julio-Claudian
Country	Roman Republic
Title	Gaius Julius Caesar Divus Imperator Dictator
Successor	second triumvirate
Honors	Pater patriae
Other functions	Quaestor Aedile curule Pontifex maximus Praetor Consul Dictator
Biography
Birth	12 or 13 July 100 BC. BC or 102 BC. AD Rome , Roman Republic
Deaths	15 March 44 BC. AD Rome , Roman Republic
Child	Gaius Julius Caesar III and Aurelia Cotta
Spouse	Cossutia ( -85 to -84 ) Cornelia Cinna ( -84 to -68 ) Pompeia Sulla ( -68 to -63 ) Calpurnia Pisoni ( -59 to -44 )
Children	Julia Ptolemy XV (Cesareo) Augustus (by adoption)

Julius Caesar ( Latin : CAIV IVLIVS CAESAR IV at birth, CAIV IMPERATOR CAESAR IVLIVS divv his death) is a general , politician and writer Roman , born in Rome on 12 or 13 July 100 av. AD and died on 15 March 44 BC. AD (the Ides of March ) .

His exceptional destiny marked the Roman world and world history: an ambitious and brilliant, he leaned on the reformist demagogue and his rise to political strategist and tactician clever, he rejected the Roman frontiers to the Rhine and the Atlantic Ocean by conquering Gaul , then used his legions to seize power. He had himself appointed dictator for life, and was assassinated shortly after by a conspiracy of senators. He was deified and his adopted son Octavian , winner Marc Anthony , completed the reform of the Roman Republic , which gave way to the principate and the Roman Empire.

The Iulii family were known historically patrician minor, who exercised some consulates but was not, in the ^first century BC. AD, the fifty families of the nobility who provided most of the consuls. The Julii experienced reversals of fortune, and Julius Caesar grew up in a modest house near the bottom of Subura , disreputable .

Gaius Julius Caesar, the future Julius Caesar was born around 100 BC. AD , son of Gaius Julius Caesar III and Aurelia Cotta , also original patrician. Despite the historical sources, the precise date of his birth is uncertain: the July 12 or July 13 100 BC. AD ^{, , ,} or 102 BC. AD ^, .

According to Tacitus , mixing maternal devotion and firm discipline, his mother Aurelia gives Caius and his sisters Julia an excellent education . Cicero allocate to family education and studies the painstaking elegance of Latin Caesar and quality his eloquence . Plutarch and Suetonius also highlight his art relations in society throughout his life: kindness and courtesy to guests, unrestrained prodigality, manners and good behavior at banquets ( Cato , who nevertheless hate him, he gives it is the only ambitious do not get drunk), brilliant conversation and cultured . These qualities of seduction are his main assets in Roman public life.

His father, Gaius Julius Caesar III , does not exceed, in his political career, the rank of praetor in 92 BC. AD , and died suddenly one morning, putting his shoes , Caesar is at the age of fifteen . His uncle, Sextus Julius Caesar III , gets the consulate in 91 BC. AD but died at the siege of Asculum during the Social War.

Youth Caesar

Youth of Julius Caesar in a context of violent political struggles that involve the optimates the populares. The first hold a conservative line and place the aristocratic Roman Senate in the heart of the Republic. The latter are to meet social demands and give more political space to the Italians and provincial.

Julius Caesar grew well in the middle of bloody unrest ( Civil War ): street fighting in Rome in 88 BC. AD between the supporters of Gaius Marius , leader of the populares, and those of Sulla and win legions of Sulla on Marianist the gates of Rome in 82 BC. AD , followed by relentless manhunt against the outlaws of the opponent.

Family relations placed Julius Caesar among the populares in Roman politics. His aunt Julia was the wife of the Consul Marius himself and wife in 84 BC. AD Cornelia Cinna 's daughter Cinna , Marius's successor. Despite these family alliances, Julius Caesar did not appear to have joined the Marianist most extreme during the civil war they waged against Sylla. It is possible that Caesar has completed the moderates when they align themselves with Sylla . In 84 BC. BC Caesar was elected (or is a candidate) to the priesthood of flamen dialis (first priest of Jupiter) following the suicide of Lucius Cornelius Merula Marianist during the proscriptions. This honorary position forbids any warlike activity, thus beginning the Curriculum honorum.

Sylla requires that Caesar divorce Cornelia Cinna , and thus breaking its last links with the Marianist. Caesar refuses, and must hide until powerful protectors, including his uncle Aurelius Cotta, do bend Sylla and stop stalking. Sylla has meanwhile blocked his appointment as Flamen Dialis and taboos that accompanied (and the dowry of his wife and part of his legacy). Prudent, Caesar left Rome . He enlisted about 80 av. AD in the army and joined with the praetor Marcus Minucius Thermus theater of military operations in Asia , where Lucullus besieged Mytilene , capital of Lesbos who had joined Mithridates VI. Caesar receives the mission to ask the King of Bithynia Nicomedes IV reinforcement of its fleet. Suetonius echoes a rumor on the reputation of Caesar, reporting that he had sex with passive Nicomedes, the most contemptible vice the eyes of the Romans. This suspicion, which may be a heavy and classic joke among soldiers, rather than a reality unprovable follow Caesar, from the insulting comments of his opponents until his final triumph .

When taking of Mytilene, Caesar accomplished a feat that historians do not specify, but it is rewarded with a civic crown, the most glorious military decoration, usually awarded for saving lives in combat with a fellow citizen. Caesar is still in Cilicia , under the command of Servilius Isauricus , then demobilized.

On the death of Sulla in 79 BC. BC , Caesar remains some time in Asia. According to Plutarch , in his trip on the Aegean Sea , he is kidnapped by pirates of Cilicia who are imprisoned for 38 days on the island of Farmakonisi and demanded a ransom of twenty talents of gold. Caesar said to be worth fifty, and promises to return the pirates run after his release, he actually does. Then he perfected his eloquence with the famous rhetorician Greek Molon of Rhodes .

Back in Rome, he began his public life by a bold stroke: he sues the proconsul Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella, who has just completed its mandate in Macedonia , and accuses him of extortion. Despite the eloquence of Caesar and the many witnesses that he cites, the target has too much political weight: Dolabella was acquitted, probably by class solidarity with the judges all come from the Senate . Caesar tried a second and brilliant attack against Gaius Antonius Hybrida which nearly succeeded. Antonius had to resort to the intervention of the tribunes of the plebs to escape a conviction .

The rise of Caesar

Caesar (after the antique marble), the Tuileries Gardens.

Caesar is actively developing its relations, spending a lot of receptions, and initiates the classical political career ( honorum course ): a military tribune , quaestor in 69 BC. AD in Spain , then aedile in 65 BC. AD , he captured the people's favor by restoring the power of the tribunes of the plebs and raising the statues of Marius. Responsible for organizing the games , he borrowed heavily to give spectacular, according to Plutarch aligning the record number of 320 pairs of gladiators .

Meanwhile, Caesar pursues his judicial work, for reasons that flatter the course of the populares. In 64 BC. BC , he brought the lawsuit against former supporters of Sulla, is condemned and Lucius Lucius Liscius Bellienus, paid for pulling back of outlaws. But he fails against Catiline , the jurors refusing to convict a member of the old family Cornelii . The following year in 63 BC. AD , with the help of the tribune of the plebs Labienus Titus , Caesar attempted a coup by accusing legal extravagant high treason syllanien old senator Gaius Rabirius old facts for thirty-seven years: the murder of the tribune the plebs Saturninus. The case is unprecedented since the legendary trial of Horace. Cicero defends the Rabirius (Rabirio Pro), but the two judges appointed by the lender are none other than Caesar himself and his cousin Sextus. Rabirius convicted, but appealed to the Roman people, his trial before the comitia is deferred and the matter was finally abandoned .

Caesar was elected in 63 BC. AD under pontifex maximus with a campaign financed by Crassus. He spends large sums of money and incurs many debts in order to win the votes of tributes comitia against two formidable rivals ( Servilius Isauricus and Q. Catulus ), older and more worthy than him ^, . As usual, Caesar moved into the residence of the pontiff at the Regia , and will serve as grand pontiff until his death.

Designated urban praetor for the following year when the conspiracy of Catiline ( 63 BC. ) , it does nothing to prevent it and is suspected of collusion . Sallust , which is a supporter of Caesar, attributes these maneuvers slanderous suspicion of Q. Catulus and C. Piso, Caesar's political opponents. Appian for its part considers that Cicero does not dare to challenge Caesar because of its popularity . During the Senate vote on the fate of the accomplices of Catiline, Caesar opposes immediate implementation by pleading the illegality of an execution without trial, but his opinion is outvoted after intervention by Cato .

Sent as propraetor in Betic ( Spain ) in 60 BC. AD , he can leave after giving bonds to creditors . His sudden departure from Rome is motivated by its desire to avoid any legal action initiated at the end of his office. Caesar takes his first command in an offensive against the peoples Iberian still rebellious. Having pacified the province, he returns to Rome in order to march in triumph for his military success and then run the consulate. But preparations for the triumph require him to park outside Rome, and there must be present for applications in time. He requested a waiver, that Cato dragged into palaver. Caesar must choose, and waives his triumph to target the consulate .

Triumvirate and Consulate

The best man for this date is Pompey after his victory in the East against King Mithridates VI Eupator. The campaign has spread to Rome in Bithynia , at Bridge and Syria. Pompey returned covered with glory with his legions but in accordance with the rule, he dismisses after receiving the triumph in 61 BC. AD.

At the height of glory, Pompey claim the land for its former soldiers and confirmation of the benefits promised to cities and princes of the East, but the Senate refused. Caesar conveniently operates the disappointment of Pompey, Crassus approaches, and with them form the first triumvirate . The agreement seals a secret alliance between the three men, each failing to perform actions detrimental to one of three . Caesar strengthens this alliance soon after marrying his daughter Julia to Pompey.

With funding from his campaign by Crassus, Caesar was elected consul in 59 BC. AD , particularly in rallying to his cause Lucius Lucceius one of its potential competitors . During his tenure, he leaves his conservative colleague, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus a shadow of authority. Bibulus Cato and multiply actions of obstruction against Caesar, but they are driven from the forum when the enactment of an agrarian law. Following this incident, Bibulus withdraws from him until the end of his term, leaving the power to Caesar who exercises alone ^, . The Roman historian Suetonius reports some verses describing the political situation:
"What Caesar did it, who among us does not? - It's Bibulus fact, I still looking. "

Caesar may now legislate as a tribune, in the words of Plutarch, satisfy the demands of the populares , make pledges to Pompey and win new supporters among knights and provincial: ignoring protests from senators Lucullus and Cato , he ratify initiatives that Pompey had reorganized the principalities of the Middle East without consulting the Senate, he promulgated several laws agrarian distribution to veterans of Pompey plots of public land (the ager publicus ), making Capua a colony Roman , purchase of land to individuals who are then distributed to 20,000 poor citizens. The reduction of one third of the rent owed by publicans to the state is a boon for the Knights , businessmen and bankers (lex Publicani) . His law against bribery (lex Iulia repetundis) finally allows fines to punish the provincial governors who trade their actions or engage in financial abuse . Finally, he places the Senate under the control of public opinion by publishing the minutes of meeting ( News senatus ) .

Political activity is associated with a sustained social activity: Suetonius ready to Caesar among other mistresses wives of Crassus and Pompey, and what seems best attested, Servilia 's half-sister of Cato . More formally, Caesar married Calpurnia , daughter of Calpurnius Piso , consul-elect for next year, which assures a future political protection. Caesar made another ally in the person of Clodius Pulcher , who had yet courted his previous wife, satisfying a query that was close to his heart: his place of barter patrician to that of plebeian and thus apply to elected tribune the plebs.

Caesar took advantage of his popularity in preparation for the next stage of his career: Normally, the Senate extended the term of a consul by the proconsul of a province for one year. Caesar circumvents this rule with the help of the tribune of the plebs Vatinius: it makes the people a vote by plebiscite that says to Caesar for five years and two provinces, Cisalpine Gaul and Illyria , with the command of three legions (lex Vatinia). To save a color of authority, the Senate gives him more the Transalpine Gaul , and a fourth Legion .

Suetonius reports that Caesar, boasting of being the Senate finally reached its goals, and promising a victory in Gaul, was an insult to one of his many opponents who said "It will not be easy for a woman. Caesar replied that this had not prevented Semiramis reign over the Assyrians , and the Amazons of old have much of Asia .

Proconsul in Gaul

The military campaigns of Julius Caesar in Gaul

By the end of his consulate, Caesar quickly gained Gaul, while the praetor Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and tribune of the plebs Antistius cite it in court to answer charges of illegalities committed during his tenure. Late lawyer, Caesar objection by the other tribunes he could be cited under the law Memmia , which prohibited any action against a citizen absent from Rome for the service of the Republic. To avoid any further challenged in the courts, will apply during Caesar's proconsul to remain in its provinces. He spends each winter and Cisalpine Gaul , where he receives supporters and canvassers and ensures every year from among the elected judges in Rome who are in its favor . Management of its affairs in Rome itself was entrusted to his secretary Lucius Cornelius Balbus , a knight from Spain, with whom he will exchange a precaution of encrypted mail .

From the beginning of his proconsul, Caesar engages the conquest of Gaul by taking advantage of the migration Helvetii in March 58 BC. AD. This military expedition was motivated by his political ambitions, but also by economic interests that combine the Romans some Gallic nations clients of Rome ( AEdui , Arverni , etc..).

While conducting his campaigns, Caesar maintains its relationship with the political class Roman Quintus , brother of Cicero command a legion in Belgium , P. and Marcus, the son of Crassus intervene in Belgium and in Aquitaine ; Lucius Munatius plancus , and Marc Anthony will be at Alesia .

In Rome, the Conservatives react to Caesar's war: the clash against the Germanic Ariovistus / A>, who is a friend of the Roman people, when given the consulate of Caesar, Cato was outraged, declaring that it must compensate for this betrayal of the Roman speech delivering Caesar to the Germans .

In 56 BC. BC , Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus , candidate supported by the Consulate Cato and Cicero , put on its agenda the removal and replacement of Caesar. Always have to be confined in Gaul, Caesar met at Lucca Crassus, Pompey and all senators who support them. They renew all three of their agreement and define a partition of the provinces . Ahenobarbus Cato and open forum were attacked and prevented from campaigning. Pompey and Crassus enjoy the support of Caesar to win elections and be elected for a second consulate in 55 BC. AD . Cicero has obligations to Pompey, that it reminded him sharply through his brother Quintus . Cicero inclines and supports the extension of Caesar's government for five more years

Following their consulate in 54 BC. AD , each receives the government of a province by Crassus in Asia seek military glory that equal those of Pompey and Caesar, of Spain and Africa are attributed to Pompey, who prefers to stay in Rome center of power, sending his legates to govern. Of the four legions assigned to Pompey ready in two to Caesar, who needs reinforcements .

During his second term in 55 BC. BC , Caesar crossed the Channel and makes a first foray into Britain (modern Great Britain ) , and quasi-mythical land known to the Romans of the time . Subsequently, he made another achievement by a military demonstration beyond the Rhine. But from the winter 54/53, the situation deteriorates in Gaul, and rebellion is growing.

In 53 BC. BC , the defeat and death of Crassus and his son Publius to Carrhae battle against the Parthians , and the death of Julia , daughter of Caesar and Pompey's wife and the child she had Pompey had defeated the triumvirate of links ^, . Pompey Caesar offers the hand of his grandniece Octavia , and asked her to marry the daughter of Pompey, but these offers of matrimonial alliances fail .

The beginning of the year 52 BC. AD is difficult to Caesar in Gaul revolt is spreading under the leadership of the Arverne Vercingetorix. In Rome, the disorders are as Pompey was appointed sole consul, with the consent of Cato and preservatives. Pompey married Cornelia, the young widow of Publius Crassus and the daughter of conservative Metellus Scipio , whom he takes in the middle of the year as a colleague in the consulate . Pompey defender is now the Conservative clan.

Vercingetorix lay down its arms at the feet of Julius Caesar after the siege of Alesia. Table of Lionel Royer , 1899.

In 52 BC. BC Julius Caesar won a decisive victory at the siege of Alesia , where he received the surrender of Vercingetorix . In 51 BC. AD , after quashing the last pockets of revolt, Caesar of Rome asserts sovereignty over the territories of Gaul located west of the Rhine.
According to Velleius Paterculus in nine campaigns, we do find only one in which Caesar would not have deserved the victory , and he massacred more than four hundred thousand enemy prisoners and made even more . For Plutarch , the conquest of Gaul was one of the greatest victories of Rome and Caesar established his commander to the rank of the most famous Roman generals, such as Fabius , the Metellus , and Scipio .
"In less than ten years since the war lasted into Gaul, he stormed over eight hundred cities, he submitted three hundred different nations, and fought in several battles against three million enemies , which has killed a million, and made many prisoners. "

As he ends his term as proconsul, Caesar prepares his return to Rome by the Roman conquest of opinion: it responds to criticism of his conduct of the war by publishing its comments on the Gallic Wars , sober account where he delivered this to his advantage, then in 51 BC. AD , he announced the construction of a magnificent new forum , funded by the spoils of Gaul, on which stands the temple dedicated to Venus Genetrix he is supposed to descend. The objective of Caesar is now to stand for elections 50 BC. AD for a second consulate in 49 BC. AD , according to the law which imposes a ten-year interval between each consulate. To avoid the attack in court that he has sworn Cato and prevent him from campaigning, he must keep his mandate proconsul in Gaul, and be a candidate despite his absence from Rome.

The political standoff

Cnaeus Pompeius Magnus, Pompey , Caesar's opponent

In Rome, the Conservatives will do everything to prevent the proposed nomination of Caesar. In 50 BC. BC , Caesar led his political distance from Cisalpine Gaul: he was elected Marc Antoine tribune of the plebs for the following year. Pay the debts of the tribune of the plebs Curio , he does let go and move on Pompey's side . Finally, it neutralizes one of the consuls Lucius Aemilius Paullus , by paying the necessary funds to rehabilitate the Basilica Aemilia in the forum . However his lieutenant Servius Sulpicius Galba, the consulate for 49 candidate is defeated, and consuls elected Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus and Gaius Claudius Marcellus fiercely hostile to it. The Conservatives are busy too, and make contacts with Labienus , best lieutenant of Caesar .

At the end of the year 50 BC. AD , the first passes of weapons remain in the legal way and held at the Senate. The tribune Curio proposes that Pompey and Caesar simultaneously dismissing their troops, oppose the consuls . The Senate decided that Pompey and Caesar each send a legion to prepare for war against the Parthians. I chose the pumped ^re legion, he had lent to Caesar, Caesar returns the ^fifteenth, and so must divest two legions (he retains nine of which accompanies Cisalpine Gaul while others overwinter Gaul) . Pompey sends two legions to winter quarters in southern Italy. Along the way, their officers engaged in an intense disinformation, claiming that Caesar had become odious and hated by his soldiers, and lead Pompey to underestimate .

Always through Curio and Marc Anthony, now tribune, Caesar tries a new proposal: he agreed to keep only two legions and the government of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyria, provided one accepts his nomination at the Consulate. Despite the search for a compromise by Cicero , Cato refuses an ordinary citizen imposes its conditions on the state, the new consul Lentulus gets carried away and expelled from the Senate Curio and Antony. The historian Velleius Paterculus Curio accuse of being responsible for the break, while Appian present Marc Anthony as the initiator of a clash. According to Plutarch, "Caesar was given to the most specious pretexts of all the" blame the tribunes of the plebs, the representatives of the people sacrosanct! The Senate decreed that Caesar should leave his post as governor and return to Rome as a private .

Civil War

Caesar might look like the victim of the fury of conservatives and as the defender of the tribunes of the plebs . Taking the initiative of illegality, he decided in January 49 BC. AD weapons from entering Italy, and crossed the Rubicon river marking the border between Italy and Cisalpine Gaul. Plutarch and Suetonius depict this historical turning point and the quote attributed to Caesar " is jacta Alea "(" The die is cast. "), meaning he was trying for the . For Caesar, there are only two outcomes: death and dishonor or victory and power. It builds on the boldness and rapidity of its movements and military experience and loyalty of his legions, and distinguishes itself from the atrocities of the previous civil war by its leniency policy, exercising or proscriptions or retaliation.

Periplus of Caesar in January 49 BC. BC -August 47 av. BC - Crossing the Rubicon , the battle of Durazzo , the battle of Pharsalia , Alexandria and the Battle of Zela.

Caesar quickly advancing toward Rome without resistance, and adds to its strengths the three legions that Pompey had begun to rise. Pompey recovered troops to Capua , and folds in Brindisi where he wrote to all provincial governors to mobilize against Caesar. Consuls, Cato , Bibulus and even moderate senators as Cicero fled in haste, joined Pompey in Brindisi and sailed for Dyrrachium in Epirus . Without fleet, Caesar can not prosecute them. During the few days he spent in Rome, he reassured the senators stayed on site, offers people a distribution of wheat, promising a donation of 75 denier each citizen and grants Roman citizenship to the inhabitants of Cisalpine Gaul. Recognizing the people will appoint dictator during his absence. Assured of support from Italy, it outsources Rome Lepidus , sends Curio seize the Sicily and Sardinia, guaranteeing the supply of wheat in Rome, freed the former Jewish king Aristobulus II to the send in Syria with two legions and prevent Pompey to mobilize troops. But supporters of Pompey Aristobulus poisoned . Caesar is himself Hispania submit the legates of Pompey. When the year 49 BC. BC ends, Caesar was master of Italy, Gaul and Spain, but his lieutenants have been setbacks: Curio was killed in Africa , Gaius Antonius was made prisoner in Illyricum , and his best lieutenant Titus Labienus joined the camp of Pompey, who raised an army on the Eastern provinces and kingdoms allies of Rome. Pompeian fleet controls the Adriatic , ready to land in Italy.

The following year in January 48 BC. BC , Caesar was formally elected consul pursuing its strategy based on the initiative and speed of movement, it takes a considerable risk by crossing the Adriatic in the winter and surprise Pompey in Epirus. Created problems during the siege of Durazzo , where he locked up for four months Pompey, Caesar had to withdraw, calling Pompey in Thessaly. In August 48 BC. BC , pushed by those around him, Pompey accepted the battle. Despite the advantage of numbers, he was defeated at Pharsalia. Cicero and Brutus go to Caesar, who welcomed them warmly. Cato and Labienus fleeing Africa , Pompey fled to Asia , then to Cyprus where he won the Egypt , thinking to find help in the young pharaoh he had once protected the father .

Caesar manages to Alexandria early October 48 where he found to his horror, the body of Pompey, ordered the murder of the young Ptolemy XIII . Caesar spent the winter of 48/47 in Alexandria, and then engages the war between Caesar and Ptolemy. The latter has a small staff and must fight a difficult, during an engagement in the island of Pharos , he is even forced to flee by swimming. He wins the battle in March 47, and the young ruler ousted in favor of Cleopatra VII and her younger brothers ^, .

Journey End Caesar 47 BC. BC to February 46 BC. AD - The portion of Caesar in Africa and the Battle of Thapsus.

In Egypt, Caesar went to Asia (July-August 47 BC. ) to suppress Pharnaces II , son of former King of Bridge Mithridates , who took advantage of the civil war to reconquer the territories and reassert his authority. The fifth day of his arrival, four hours of fighting in a single battle ( Battle of Zela ), Caesar crushes and dethroned Pharnaces . On that occasion he wrote to the Senate these famous words: "Veni, vidi, vici to express the ease with which he had come to the end of his opponent .

Back in Italy, Caesar has to deal with the insubordination of the troops stationed in Campania. He gets to Rome, and manages to restore order under the threat of the fire .

Then Caesar enters Africa late 47 BC. BC , where he spent the winter. It destroyed at the Battle of Thapsus Republican Army command that Metellus Scipio and Cato of Utica and its ally King Numidian Juba ^I. (February 46 BC. ) ; Metellus Scipio and Juba die Battle, Cato committed suicide at Utica to avoid being captured, Titus Labienus took refuge in Spain. The annexation of Numidia added to the conquests of Caesar.

Triumph

When Caesar returned to Rome, peace has returned, Italy has not experienced the atrocities of previous wars. All writers praise Caesar's clemency, allowing unrestricted Pompeian who went and exercised no proscription against the political class. Caesar can tell the people that the annexation of Gaul and Numidia and Protectorate on Egypt will allow to obtain wheat and oil in abundance and definitively resolve the supply problems of Rome.

In August and September 46, Caesar celebrated a fourfold triumph his victories over the Gauls, Pontus, Egypt and Numidia. The duration of the ceremonies and pomp, the enormity of the spoils eclipse all previous triumphs. At each ceremony, Caesar wearing purple tank runs in the Sacred Way , followed by the booty, captives , soldiers are free to chant the most risqu jokes about him. To mount the Capitol to offer sacrifice to the Capitoline temple of Jupiter , Caesar's chariot passes between two rows of elephants who hold torches.

Caesar offers the people of theatrical performances, races, contests of athletes, performances and hunting gladiatorial combat re-enactments and ground water, the latter is the first naval battle shown in Rome. Public banquets together nearly 200,000 guests . The sale of booty brings in more than 600 million sesterces , and the money is distributed to flow: the 75 funds that Caesar had promised are given to each citizen , with 25 more money to compensate for the delay, the legionnaires are 24 000 sesterces each, and lots of land. Rents of less than 1,000 sesterces in Rome and less than 500 sesterces in Italy are canceled .

Most Claims populares are now satisfied, and Caesar undertakes the necessary reforms to the administration of the Roman world. He is conducting a census, and adjusted downward the number of recipients of distributions of wheat. He compensates for this position by installing 80,000 poor citizens and soldiers demobilized in new settlements in the provinces, including Carthage and Corinth, he rebuilt it.

Absolute power

Caesar's journey of December 46 BC. BC to April 45 BC. BC - The arrival of Caesar in Hispania (Spain) and the battle of Munda.

The peace lasts only a few months. In 46 BC. AD , the last strength of Pompeian party in Spain protest, led by Pompey the Younger , son of Pompey, Titus Labienus. Consul for the fourth time, Caesar arrived by forced marches in Spain in December 46 BC. AD. This war is long and no thank you, with performances on both sides. Caesar completed in April 45 BC. JC 's last opponent to Munda , in the fiercest battle of the civil wars . Delayed by illness, his young nephew Octavius joined him in Spain despite the dangers of the journey that Caesar gesture greatly appreciated. In the last will he wrote, he said adopting Octavius and appointed as principal heir with another as heir Pedius Quintus , his other nephew who fought alongside him in Spain .

Returned to Rome in October 45 BC. BC , Caesar celebrated his fifth triumph. Caesar commits a mistake political Plutarch highlight : the rule is a triumph honors a victory over an enemy people of Rome, which is not the case in this civil war. Neither Pompey winner of Sertorius , no winner of Marianist Sylla had celebrated triumphs. Moreover, Caesar makes two other triumphs, to Fabius and his nephew Quintus Pedius . Again, this is a departure from that practice in general reserve the triumph with the imperium and not to his lieutenants.

Caesar appointed dictator for ten years, is now the center of power and he rebuilds the strength of the Senate, writes off a few senators responsible for bribery in their province, and that includes the Cisalpine Gauls and Spaniards, who first marked the beginning of promotion of provincial. He calls himself the magistrates except the tribunes of the plebs and the city fathers plebeians still elected, and appoints Consuls of load for a few days only. Get a title, advantage or favor depends upon its approval. Thus, Cicero through speeches filled with adulation when he describes Caesar's clemency to "divine" is pardoned several of his friends .

Cicero proposes to award honors to Caesar, the other senators after an escalation in increasingly excessive. Thus Caesar was given the name and title of Liberator of Imperator transmitted to his descendants, though he has more children . He reformed the calendar , it renames the months of Quintilis his surname . Pompey had the honor to wear the emblems of victory, purple robe and crown of laurels, when celebrating the games in Rome. Caesar received the same honor, but permanent, and can sit on a seat with gold plated. Certain privileges granted by the senators are up to the extravagance, as permission to have intercourse with every woman he wants . For the historian Dio Cassius , senators act out excess of flattery, or ridicule. More worrying, according to Plutarch, it is for some a ploy to discredit Caesar and render him odious, and prepare more than pretexts to attack it one day .

The plot

By naming himself the superior magistrates, Caesar stops the cycle of corrupting campaign funded by the ruinous financial extortion in the provinces, and finally relieves the burden of these, but this reduces the profits of the brewers of money are the publicans and replaces political competition by an arbitrary and shameful sycophancy that raise objections: for the year 44 BC. BC , Caesar appoints Marc Antony as consul Marcus Junius Brutus and Cassius as lenders. According to Plutarch, the disappointment of Cassius, who hoped the consulate is one of the reasons that led him to conspire. All Roman historians describe him as the chief instigator of the plot against Caesar. Cassius gradually gathers a coterie of opponents, former Pompeian pardoned by Caesar, but also note the modern historians of Caesareans that were used during the Gallic War . The latter probably fear that the military expedition against Caesar prepares the Parthians to be followed by a return by Scythia and Germany .

The plotters seek in Marcus Junius Brutus, the chief symbolic ideal namesake mythical Brutus who drove Tarquin the Proud , the last king who reigned over Rome as a tyrant. Nephew and admirer of Cato, Brutus, often held stoic but actually much closer to the Academy but could also find in his philosophical convictions of reasons to act against a "tyrant." He married Porcia , Cato's daughter and widow of Bibulus , and therefore it is the moral heir of the last republicans. However, Caesar has bestowed favors and appointed urban praetor. The plotters then conduct a psychological approach: they dot every day the court presided over Brutus anonymous messages invoking the hunter king Brutus: "Brutus, you sleep, you're not the real Brutus! . Then Cassius persuades Brutus to act against Caesar. Present Brutus as the inspiration behind the plot against Caesar can federate other opponents .

Rumors of conspiracy to succeed Caesar, who does not care, replying that he is aware, or even jokes when he was informed that conspires Brutus, Caesar, biting retorts "It can wait the end of the carcass! .

On 14 February 44 BC. BC , the Senate gives Caesar the perpetual dictatorship. Its power is now limitless, even the intercessio tribunes can only be exercised on his imperium. Any hope of an abdication of Sulla and like a return to the Republic before the war disappears. Caesar takes decisions surprising: he decreed a general amnesty, and dismiss his personal guard .

Another inconsistency in the eyes of Roman historians, Caesar ignores the omens : the warnings of soothsayers warning for the period up until the Ides of March , the nightmare of his wife Calpurnia the eve of the ides . At best, learning from adverse signs observed on the victims offered in the preliminary meeting of the senate, Caesar resolved to take no important decision that day .

Caesar's death

The Death of Caesar by Karl von Piloty
"Metellus he discovered the top of the shoulder was the signal. Casca struck the first of his sword "(Plutarch)

Caesar's death by Vincenzo Camuccini , 1798
"He was defending himself, said to be against the other, and dragged his body from side to side with loud cries. But when he saw Brutus on him the sword in hand, he covered his head dress "(Plutarch)

The conspirators had planned their attack to the Ides of March (March 15th of the year 44 BC. ) at the beginning of the meeting of the Senate in the Curia Pompeia on the Champ de Mars. Caesar alone is targeted, Marc Anthony, who accompanies Caesar is attracted away by false suitors, while Caesar is surrounded by the group of conspirators. Metellus ensures that Caesar does not protect, and all the assailed: he fell pierced with 23 stab wounds . The final blow comes from Brutus. Caesar's last words were for the latter " You too, my son " .

No less than eleven ancient authors have reported the attack, with more or less detail ^, . If the fact is well known, the analysis of its causes is difficult. Officially, the conspirators were removed to prevent Caesar to become king and save the Republic. The charge to aspire to the throne was the trial for almost conservative Roman ritual to remove any politician too favorable to popular demands . Roman writers noted as so many clues that may support this suspicion:

• There are rumors saying that Caesar would receive the title of king for his expedition in the East, because according to the prophecy of the Sibylline books , only a king could conquer Parthia .
• Back to Alva, Caesar was hailed the king's name by his supporters, which stirred the crowd. He contends he is not called king but Caesar, and he continues his way dissatisfied .
• When senators come to the rostrum of the forum to announce his new honors they have voted, it does not rise, lacking the respect due to the Senate .
• February 15, the feast of Lupercalia , Antony moved the royal diadem to Caesar, as it pushes to the cheers of the crowd. Marc Antoine insists, and the refusal of Caesar is again applauded. Caesar wearing this tiara in the Capitoline temple of Jupiter .
• One morning there are statues of Caesar crowned the royal diadem. Two tribunes of the people involved, the kidnap and arrest of Caesareans that Caesar had acknowledged the name of king. Caesar responded by dismissing these tribunes .

Plutarch says that Caesar wanted to destroy the Republic and become king . Among modern historians, Jerome Carcopino follows this review , and Joel Schmidt / Sup> sees this list as many actions intended by Caesar to gauge opinion on the Roman idea of the crowned king. Other modern historians are more cautious in interpreting the evidence cited by Plutarch and Suetonius: for Marcel Le Glay , it is difficult to separate fact and rumor, and if Caesar did not want the monarchy itself, some in his entourage wanted, and Romans believed or pretended to believe . More, Ronald Syme believes that this problem "need not be made. Caesar was killed for what it was, not for what he might have become. By coating the dictatorship for life, it seemed remove any hope of return to a normal and constitutional government. This was unbearable, the future blockage. " .

But Suetonius complicating analysis of Caesar's End, opening another avenue : Caesar would have been the death he wanted. Again, Suetonius produces its indices:

• according to some of his parents, he would not have to live more, and would rather succumb to the conspiracy rather than being always on guard
• at a banquet with Lepidus , to the philosophical question about the kind of end we preferred, Caesar replied "sudden and unexpected"
• the dismissal of his personal bodyguard, a month before, which exposed unprotected
• indifference to warnings about the plots and the predictions adverse

Modern historians have developed this thesis , justifying the attitude of Caesar by his perception of the disease decreased. Nevertheless, preferences for a brief and unexpected death after all, are trivial, and by Regis Martin , the belief that Caesar in his protective luck (Fortuna) and his certainty that its loss would cause civil war may also explain his conduct.

Funerals and wills

Caesar appointed three heirs in his will, the little son of her sisters, that Octavius , Lucius Pinarius Scarpus and Quintus Pedius. He left three quarters of his inheritance in the first quarter and left the other two. In the last clause of his will, Caesar adopted Octavian, the future Emperor Augustus , and gave it its name. Finally, he bequeathed to the Roman people his gardens near the Tiber , and three hundred sesterces per head .
On 20 March, a pyre was built on the Champ de Mars , near the grave of his daughter Julia, and one imagines the dramatic course of this closeness. The body of Caesar, lying on a bed of ivory hung purple and gold , was first placed in a gilded chapel, built on the forum before the rostrum. At its head, his gown was displayed on a bloody trophy. As the body lay, face to the sky, and could not be seen, they raised over him a life-size wax effigy, so the crowd could look twenty-three injuries (thirty-five by other authors ) that had been brutally inflicted on the body and face. To emphasize the ignominy of this crime, Marc Anthony did read, by way of eulogy, list of honors that were conferred on Caesar, and the oath which had been loaned the senators to defend his life. They sang verses of whom returned to foster compassion, a quotation from the Judgement of Arms Pacuvius : "Should I save them for them to become my murderers? (Given the leniency which Caesar had steadfastly demonstrated in respect of Brutus , was particularly well chosen).
Overturned by the clever staging and pathetic, the angry crowd piled around the bier of wood torn from the neighboring shops and everything that came to hand to build a pyre of apotheosis, as she had done some years earlier for the funeral of Clodius. The veterans of his legions threw their weapons and some women's jewelry they wore. The Jews who did not forget that Caesar had enabled them to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem by Pompey killed, gathered several nights running around his tomb to mourn.
It is said that when Caius Matius organizes funeral games in July -44 to mark the anniversary of his birth, a comet began to shine in the sky (appeared also attested by Chinese astronomers) and Etna entered eruption, making his death a cosmic upheaval. At the location where he was cremated, his nephew and adopted son, the future Augustus , erected a temple. Nowadays, it sometimes comes from afar to lay some flowers, a poem, a candle and perpetuate the memory of one who would be "the first in Rome ... The commemorative plaque by the city for visitors , borrowed from Appian his account of the event:

"... And we brought him back to the Forum, where stood the ancient palace of the kings of Rome, the plebeians gathered all the objects of wood and all the benches overflowing with the Forum, and all sorts of other things like, then began over the abundant ornaments of the procession, many still brought back great store of crowns and military decorations: then they lit the pyre and spent the night in a crowd with him, he's just a first altar was erected, and that now is the temple of Caesar, who does one judge deserves to be honored as a god ... "

After Caesar

Extent of the territory of the Roman Republic under the rule of Caesar. Yellow, his conquests

The plot did not achieved its goals because the consul Mark Antony had been spared, at the request of Brutus , and Lepidus , who was stationed with troops near Rome, and Octavian, who was in Epirus, was out of reach. However, the attack against Caesar guided the contenders to succeed him on what to do: they made a symbolic strike the dictatorship of the Roman magistrates, and replaced by a five-year triumvirate. The leniency policy had proved suicidal risk, the triumvirate began a wave of bloody proscriptions, followed by 14 years of civil war against Caesar's assassins, against Sextus Pompey , then between triumvirate. Octavian eventually won in 31 BC . AD , and became Augustus , teacher and absolute empire. He confirmed and continued the reforms begun by Caesar, organizing a peaceful empire, stabilized and managed with more equity. As Augustus and most of the emperors after him, Julius Caesar was deified after his death.

Julius Caesar writer

Edition of 1783 Commentaries on the Gallic Wars

Caesar was not only a great general and a great statesman, he also excelled in oratory and writing. Various writings he had composed, we are left only his Commentaries (Commentarii rerum gestarum):

• De Bello Gallico , " Comments on the Gallic War ", describing the campaign of Caesar in Gaul ( ^, .
  It usually attached, although the following books were probably written by Aulus Hirtius :
  • Alexandrino Bello , "On the Alexandrian war, recounting the campaign of Caesar to Alexandria.
  • De Bello Africo , "On the African War", describing the campaign of Caesar in North Africa.
  • Hispaniensis Bello , "On the war in Hispania," recounting Caesar's campaign in the Iberian Peninsula.

  Caesar also wrote in the -45 's Anticato, reply to the eulogy that Cicero spoke in favor of Cato of Utica , "the last Republican." This book, now lost, is known by quotations from Cicero (ad Atticum, 13, 50, 1), Tacitus (Annals, 4, 34), Suetonius (Caesar, 56, 3), Plutarch (Caesar, 54) , Appian, Cassius Dio and Juvenal.

  Finally, and most curiously, he wrote a treatise on grammar analogia in two books, in which he outlined the theories argued on grammatical analogy (hence the book title), and a poem entitled the Travel.
  Caesar seems to have also written several essays in his youth (Praise of Hercules, a tragedy of Oedipus, a remarkable book of words), but Augustus banned their publications, after the dictator's death . According to historian Pierre Grimal , these three lost works were probably written in Greek .

  Caesar's Legacy

  Political reforms

  Julius Caesar became dictator takes over some administrative reforms a generation ago by the former dictator Sulla. Again, we must adapt institutions to the expansion of Roman power as a result of conquests in the East and in Gaul, and offer loads of his supporters:

  • further increase in the number of judges: the Quaestors spend 20 to 40, the lenders from 8 to 16, the city fathers are now 6. Consuls are always two, but the appointment of consuls suffects complementing the two consuls eponymous allows you to have more candidates for the functions proconsular.
  • Caesar appoints direct half of the magistrates, and recommends candidates for the other half .
  • restaffing the Senate, and losses of the civil war are offset by the massive incorporation of new members, including provincial Gallic and Spanish, increasing to 800 or 900 the number set by Sulla to 600 senators .

  For administration of provinces , Caesar wants to avoid the mandates of five years he practiced, and Pompey, he limits the duration loads Governor: One year propraetor two years for a proconsul . The organization of municipalities Italian is specified by a framework law, a copy has reached us, the tables of Heraclea.

  These reforms will be retained by Augustus , the latter will have a large elite needed to administer an empire.

  The architectural

  

  

  The Forum of Caesar , inaugurated in 46 BC. AD , the temple of Venus Genetrix

  The activity of builder Caesar appears several times in his political career. Each time, his achievements, always spectacular, are intended to enhance its prestige and popularity.

  At the end of the Gallic Wars in 51 BC. BC , Caesar began his campaign for a future application to the consulate. Pompey had built the first theater Roman stone in Rome and a new senate a few years ago. Caesar in turn launches a prestigious public building project: a new forum , north of the old, opening his hand is on the Argiletum. It is funded by the spoils of Gaul, and began by purchasing land for a sum of one hundred million sesterces by Suetonius . This Forum Julium follows a plan similar to the Forum Pompeii dating from the same period: a long rectangular plaza enclosed by a wall lined with porticoes , in which nestles the temple of Venus. According to Appian , the dedication of the temple would have followed the wishes of Caesar to raise a temple to Venus Victorious he was victorious at Pharsalia . Before this temple, he was represented by a statue .

  This forum creates a new original architectural combining the agora Hellenistic and Roman temple on the podium , formula be adopted by all Imperial Forums later.

  Unchallenged master of Rome from 46 BC. BC , Caesar now has all the means of its policy. It begins with occasional adjustments to the games celebrating his triumph: enlarging the ends of the circus, construction of a stadium for the wrestlers on the field of Mars digging a basin along the Tiber for a naval battle .

  The work on the old forum are the reconstruction of the curia Hostilia , burned in 52 BC. AD by the followers of Clodius Pulcher. Other more ambitious projects are planned: the construction of the largest basilica in Rome on the site of the old basilica Sempronia , building a temple of Mars, and a second theater in stone . All these sites will be suspended during the civil wars. Octavian became Augustus will lead to an end by completing the great Basilica Julia and the Theatre of Marcellus , and dedicating a temple of Mars the Avenger.

  The reorganization of Rome

  To relieve a congested Rome, Caesar pushes the boundaries of administrative and broadens the scope of the sacred pomrium a Roman mile (1.5 km) from the ancient walls of the city . This measure was hardly enough, as Augustus expands the perimeter again a generation later by creating the 14 regions of Rome.

  Always for the management of Rome, Caesar makes identifying the urban population, according to a new and original approach: citizens are no longer called by tribes paraded before the census offices. The census is conducted district by district, and they are the owners of rental properties that must report their tenants. The method had to be efficient, because the resume Augustus . Without specifying the results of this count, Suetonius says he allowed to bring 320 000-150 000 the number of beneficiaries of free distribution of wheat introduced by Clodius Pulcher in 58 BC. AD.

  A final bill of Caesar to improve somewhat the traffic in a city with narrow streets and congested traffic banned all daytime vehicle wheel, with the exception of tanks processional ceremonies and carts entrepreneurs necessary for urban sites. This law was passed after the death of Caesar, and remained in force for centuries, demonstrating its necessity . Since Caesar, the Roman night was reserved for the transit of goods to the chagrin of the sleepers, and the recriminations of Martial and Juvenal .

  Currencies

  

  

  Denarius of Caesar issued -44 (ref. Cohen22).
  Venus standing, holding a Victory

  Civil wars conducted by Caesar impose high financial need, to keep growing legions, who move from one sector to another of the Empire. It developed so from 49 BC. JC a mint following his movements on the theaters, and hits the cash money which he has a growing need. This practice is not new, the Roman Senate had allowed for large expeditionary forces of Lucullus or of Pompey in the East , but Caesar's arrogance by capturing the gold reserves of the Republic . Moreover, Caesar brings two major innovations that serve its policy, that his successor Octavian and Mark Antony perpetuate, and institutionalized in the Roman Empire:

  • minting gold
  • the representation of his portrait on coins

  Rome had issued gold coins temporarily, mainly to the most difficult moments of the Second Punic War and drawing in precious metal reserves hoarded by the Senate . The issue of aureus renews with the idea to dip into reserves to save the Republic. Moreover, the high value of the currency (an aureus for 25 denier silver or 100 sesterces ) facilitates significant rewards to the soldiers of Caesar and contributes to their prestige.

  The patterns that appear on coins issued by participating in Caesar's propaganda also his name or portrait, the first under the Republic, are mainly the following reasons :

  • Venus , sideways or up, that Caesar has as its ancestor, is the most frequent theme ;
  • accessories of worship, recalling his piety and his qualities of augur and pontifex maximus ;
  • of Victories , military signs, and trophies of victory against the Gauls.
  Related Articles: aerarium , Roman coin and Roman economy.

  Calendar

  Related article: Julian calendar.

  The functions of Pontifex Maximus Caesar included exerted by setting the start of each year. Caesar builds to reform the Roman calendar , so that the average duration of the year is exactly 365.25 days, the best approximation known at the time in the West. It gives its name to the Julian calendar. The Roman historian Suetonius says this change in the schedule made by Caesar
  "He paid the year on the course of the sun, and composed of three hundred sixty-five days, removing the intercalary month, and increasing one day every fourth year. For this new order of things might begin with the Kalends of January the following year, he added two other months between November and December, which was that this reform, and so it was fifteen months, with the old intercalary month, which, as usual, was presented this year. " .

  The title of Caesar

  Main article: Caesar (title).

  Caesar's name, taken by Octavian as his adopted son of J. Caesar, later became a title that carried all the emperors and the Roman princes, though strangers to the family of the Caesars. He was then assigned to the heirs apparent of the empire, which became a usage rule from Diocletian. Since that time the emperors took the title of Augustus and did join with the title of Caesar was a prince who succeed them. The name of Caesar gave the word " Kaiser "in German , and the word " tsar "(or" Czar ") in Russian and Bulgarian.

  Etymology of the name Caesar

  Pliny the Elder claimed that the name of Caesar could come from the fact that the ancestors of Caesar was born by caesarean section (Caesar, aris: child born through an incision) . In contrast, and despite what Pliny the Elder, the birth of Caesar himself cesarean is unlikely, as his mother lived for another twenty years after his birth.
  A folk tradition posits that it is following a feat accomplished during the First Punic War by a representative of the gens Julia, who was defeated in a fight an elephant of the Carthaginian army, cutting it in the shanks, one would have honored Caesor nickname, "slicer". Then the term Punic Kesari, "elephant", gave Caesar, and the nickname became hereditary. The discovery of coins issued at the beginning of the Civil War, representing an elephant trampling a serpent (or carnyx) above the name "Caesar", seems to support this thesis. This ancestor would be proud to place around 250 BC. AD. But the first member of the gens Julia to be registered as historically reliable is Sextus Julius Caesar who was praetor in 208 BC. AD.
  A final assumption made by Sextus Pompeius Festus considers that the first Caesar of the gens Julia would have been so named because of thick hair, Latin Caesarea.
  

  The Latin author Spartianus in his book Life of Aelius , a synthesis of different possible origins of the name Caesar

  "Speculation that led Caesar's name, the only title ever carried the prince whose life I write, I apparently have to be reported, I would say that, in the opinion of most learned and wisest authors This word comes from the fact that the first who was named was killed in a fight an elephant animal called Caes in the language of the Moors, or what he had to give him the day to his mother, who had died before giving birth, a caesarean operation called, or what he was born with long hair or finally that his eyes were a sky blue and extraordinary vivacity. But we must proclaim the need happy, whatever it was, create a name became so famous, and will last the eternity of the world. "

  Caesar's family

  Family tree of Julio-Claudian

  

  Family tree of Julio-Claudian

  C. Julius Caesar II

  Marcie

  Sylla
  Dict III

  Julilla Caesaris

  Aurelia Cotta

  C. Julius Caesar III

  S. Julius Caesar III
  Cos I

  Julia Caesaris

  Caius Marius
  Cos VII

  Cornelia Sulla

  Julia Caesaris

  Julia Caesaris

  Mr. Balbus Atius

  Caius Marius
  Cos I

  Cinna
  IV cos

  Calpurnia

  Pompeia Sulla

  Cornelia Cinna

  Julius Caesar
  Dict. Life

  G. Octavius

  Atia Balba Caesonia

  L. Antonius Pietas
  Cos I

  P. Clodius Pulcher

  Pompey
  Trv VII Cos III

  Julia Caesaris

  C. Claudius Marcellus
  Cos I

  Thurin Octavia Minor

  Marc Anthony
  Trv XII Cos II

  Fulvia

  Scribonia

  Augustus
  LWB XLI

  Livia

  Ti. Nero Claudius

  Clodia Pulchra
  1 st ep. Augustus

  Marcus Claudius Marcellus

  M. Agrippa Vipsanius
  Cos III

  Julie Elder

  Tiberius
  WB XXIII

  Vipsania Agrippina

  I Drusus
  Cos I

  Antonia Minor

  Antonia Major

  Drusus II
  Cos I

  Julia Livilla

  Tiberius Gemellus

  Agrippa Posthumus

  Julia Vipsania

  Lucius Caesar

  Gaius Caesar
  Cos I

  a href = "Agrippine_l% 27A% C3% C3% A9e% AIn" alt = "Agrippina the Elder"> Agrippina the Elder

  Germanicus
  II cos

  Claude
  WB XIV

  Messalina

  Caesonia Milonia

  Caligula
  WB IV

  Julia Drusilla

  Drusus III
  II cos

  Nero Caesar

  Julia Livilla

  Agrippina the Younger

  Gn. Domitius Ahenobarbus
  Cos I

  Julia Drusilla

  Nero
  WB XIV

  Claudia Octavia

  Britannicus

  His parents

  Main article: Gaius Julius Caesar III and Aurelia Cotta.

  The father of Julius Caesar, Gaius Julius Caesar III was born circa 135 BC. AD and died in 85 BC. AD , is the son of Gaius Julius Caesar II. Born into a patrician family with several consuls ( Sextus Julius Caesar II and Sextus Julius Caesar III ) perform during its life functions quaestor ( 99 BC. or 98 BC. ) , praetor ( 92 BC. ), then governor of Asia ( 91 BC. ). He died suddenly of natural causes in Pisa in 85 BC. AD , comes from a patrician family and consular (his three brothers were consuls). For Tacitus and Plutarch , she played the matronly Roman copy through education and dedication she has for her children and her family and especially his son . Widowed in 85 BC. BC , she does not remarry and continue to live with it.

  His sisters

  With the exception of Caesar, Gaius Julius Caesar III and Aurelia Cotta had two other children, two daughters, Julia Caesaris "Maior" (the former) and Julia Caesaris "Minor" (the young).
  The information on Julia Caesaris "Maior" are few. Suetonius confirms the existence of the latter because he said it would participate in the prosecution of Clodius Pulcher prosecuted for adultery and sacrilege . She had at least one son, because different authors report their allocation to the child in the will of Caesar ^, .
  Julia Caesaris "Minor" was born in 101 BC. AD and died in 51 BC. AD . She married Marcus Atius Balbus, a native of Aricia and is the mother Atia Balba Caesonia and grandmother of Octavian, which will be adopted and become the Emperor Caesar Augustus.

  His wives

  Main articles: Cossutia , Cinna Cornelia , Pompeia Sulla and Calpurnia Pisoni.

  According to Suetonius , Cossutia was Caesar's first wife, whom he divorced to marry Cornelia (mother of his daughter Julia ) for political reasons, "and though the bridegroom had, from childhood to Cossutia, a Single family riding, but very rich, he divorced her to marry Cornelia, daughter of Cinna, who had been four times consul (dimissa Cossutia equestri sed quae familia admorum dives praetextato desponsata Furat ...) " ^, .

  Examination of the few sources and the compilation of studies on the subject leading to clear the following hypothesis. Caesar, having just put on the manly gown , married Cossutia, from a wealthy family of the equestrian order, between July 85 BC. AD and July 84 Ave. AD (probably at the instigation of his parents for financial reasons, the family is not especially rich) and divorced the following year, in the consulship of Lucius Cornelius Cinna , whom he married daughter, Cornelia (one more personal choice reflecting a political orientation that has never waned thereafter, Caesar, though still very young having become the head of the family on the death of his father).
  Plutarch, meanwhile, does not provide a satisfactory solution, because his account of Caesar's life contains some inconsistencies:
  "After his quaestor, he married his third wife Pompeia, and had Cornelia, his first wife, a daughter, who later was married to Pompey. The passage is a contradiction that Napoleon III had already identified at the time . Finally, if Pompeia Sulla is Caesar's third wife, Cornelia, and his first, Plutarch does not mention the identity of his second wife. It seems more likely that Cornelia was the second wife of Caesar and Cossutia first.
  In 68 BC. AD , after having served as quaestor in Hispania, Caesar's wife Pompeia Sulla , because his first wife Cornelia died the previous year .
  Five years later, in 63 BC. BC , Caesar was elected pontifex maximus and decides to divorce following the alleged relationship between his wife and a young patrician Clodius Pulcher.
  Finally, in 59 BC. BC he married Calpurnia Pisoni with which he remained connected until his death in 44 BC. AD.

  His children

  Main article: Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar) , Ptolemy XV and Augustus.

  Cornelia Cinna gave him his only legitimate child , a girl named Julia , who was born in 83 BC. BC or 82 BC. AD wife and Pompey in 60 BC. AD. She died in 54 BC. AD.
  During his stay in Egypt, Caesar's relations with Cleopatra VII who give birth later (around 47 BC. or, more probably around 44 BC. ) of a child, Ptolemy XV Cesareo said. However, the paternity of this child to Caesar is discussed by historians and already seems to be the subject of controversy shortly after the dictator's death . Cesareo was assassinated very young (15 or 17 years) by Augustus , the adopted son of Caesar and the first Roman emperor.
  In 46 BC. BC , Caesar, without legitimate offspring, his adopted nephew Octavian by the will which, according to Roman custom in cases of adoption, is now known as Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Octavian). He later became Augustus , first emperor of Rome.
  Finally, Caesar is perhaps the father of Brutus , he would have had with Servilia Caepio in 85 BC. AD. Indeed, Plutarch in his work, Life of Brutus, Caesar's goodwill relates to the latter and the belief that he had gained from being the natural father, the child was born during the time he attended Servilia Caepio .

  The amorous conquests of Caesar

  The women of Roman high society

  Main article: Servilia Caepio.

  According to Roman historian Suetonius , Caesar seduces many women throughout his life and especially those from the Roman high society .
  He allegedly seduced Postumia, the wife of Servius Sulpicius , Lollia, the wife of Aulus Gabinius and Tertulla, wife of Marcus Crassus. He seems to have also attended Mucia, the wife of Pompey .
  Caesar has special relations with Caepio Servilia , mother of Brutus, he seemed especially appreciate . Thus, Suetonius reports the various gifts and benefits he gave to his beloved, including a magnificent pearl worth six million sesterces . Servilia's love for Caesar was publicly known in Rome .
  

  Caesar's penchant for the pleasures of love seems also evidenced by these few lines sung by his soldiers, during his triumphal return to Rome from his campaigns in Gaul, and reported by Suetonius :

  "Citizens, watch your wives: we bring a bald adulterer
  You have committed adultery in Gaul with the gold borrowed from Rome. "

  Queens

  Main article: Cleopatra VII and Eunoe (queen of Mauretania).

  Caesar had an affair with Eunoe , wife of Bogud , king of Mauretania .
  However, his relationship with Cleopatra VII has been more famous. Suetonius reports that Caesar sailed up the Nile with the Egyptian queen and brought to Rome in the showering of gifts and honors . It is also a good way for him to take Egypt, where three legions are present, and whose role in the grain supply of Italy starts to become dominant. Still, that Cleopatra was present in Rome at the time of the assassination of Caesar and she quickly returned to his country after the murder.

  The health status of Caesar

  According to the Greek historian Plutarch, Csar was fragile, the latter being in fact subject to frequent headaches and attacks of epilepsy ^{, , ,} .
  This weakness of Caesar and his poor health also appear to be attested by Suetonius ^{, , ,} . However, Suetonius also stresses the endurance of Caesar walking or swimming during his campaigns .
  Other authors report, meanwhile, malaise occurred at the very end of his life ^, .
  Nevertheless, Caesar could not have ordered his troops as effectively as if Gaul had been in poor health. Whatever the disease affecting it, it seems to have proven that late. The certificates of his "epilepsy" date only the last years of his life ( Thapsus and perhaps Munda ). Had it been otherwise, Cicero, who was not wearing it in his heart, would surely not deprived of the attack on the subject as he did about an alleged affair with King Nicomedes IV of Bithynia.

  In addition, it must be remembered that the diagnosis of disease did not obey the same criteria now and that symptoms resembling those very imprecisely described by Plutarch and Suetonius may be due to many other causes ( hypoglycaemia , malaise vagal , blow on the head, tumors etc.).. Some of these conditions may also be accompanied by an alteration of behavior and it seems that this was the case during the last month that Caesar went to Rome before being murdered. Reading these documents, which were not written by contemporaries, can not reach definitive conclusions.

  It is also likely that a filtering of the sources of the period was made by Augustus , censoring anything that did not fall within its propaganda (including and especially the works of others that Caesar Comments). Caesar died between 56 and 58 years, which is an honorable age and a long life for the time. The tumultuous life he led, will certainly left its mark, since it does not spare.

  Awkwardness

  According to tradition, Julius Caesar was left-handed , but that assertion is belied by Pierre-Michel Bertrand .

  Works inspired by the life of Caesar

  Middle Age

  

  

  Caesar, king of tiles left over from the series of Nine Worthies

  Julius Caesar is one of the most prominent historical figures of world culture. His popularity continues to grow from the twelfth ^century with the spread of the pattern of Nine Worthies , nine historical figures or mythical embodying the ideal of the king knight. This tradition remains today the king of tiles from the playing cards.

  The Facts of the Romans in the early ^thirteenth century , is the first biography in French entirely devoted to Caesar, who inspired works by Caesar himself, Lucan , Suetonius and Sallust , this text also uses historical methods borrowed from the novel or epic poem , and have a great influence on the image of Caesar in the Middle Ages.

  From the Renaissance to the Modern Age

  

  

  Statue of Julius Caesar performed by Nicolas Coustou in 1713

  • Caesar inspired William Shakespeare , one of his most famous tragedies, Julius Caesar , probably around 1599, published for the first time in the folio of 1623.
  • The Death of Caesar, a tragedy in three acts, written by Voltaire in 1731 , published in 1736 and represented the 29 August 1743 by the French Theatre. The work on Gallica
  • Julius Caesar in Egypt , opera by Handel , was created in London in 1736 at the Haymarket Theatre.
  • Many of the sculptures are, including:
    • Julius Caesar, foot sculpture made of marble in 1713 by Nicolas Coustou and Francis Girardon in the yard at Puget Louvre.
    • Julius Caesar, Ambrogio Parigi , exposed to the Tuileries Gardens.
  • Caesar and Cleopatra, a play created in 1898 by George Bernard Shaw.

  Modern works

  • Julius Caesar at the pinnacle of power is from 1959, a recurring character in the comic strip Asterix the Gaul , creating a humorous perspective (but not ridiculous) to be a constant in the representation of French consumer Caesar.
  • In film, he was entitled to epics burlesque embodiment French:
    • in 1982 , two at a quarter before Jesus Christ where he is played by Michel Serrault
    • in Asterix and Obelix against Caesar in 1999 where he is played by Gottfried John and its consequences: Mission Cleopatra in 2002 ( Alain Chabat ) and Asterix at the Olympic Games in 2008 ( Alain Delon ).
  • Conversely, the Anglo-Saxon directors are more dramatic, especially in the many film versions of Cleopatra :
    • In 1945, Caesar and Cleopatra , British film directed by Gabriel Pascal , where Claude Rains plays the role of Caesar
    • In 1953, Julius Caesar , American film directed by Joseph Leo Mankiewicz , based on the play of William Shakespeare.
    • in 1963 Cleopatra with Rex Harrison in the role of Caesar
    • In 2002, Julius Caesar (Caius Julius) passes to the small screen, directed by Uli Edel
    • In 2005, the television series Rome , co-produced by HBO and the BBC , looks (somewhat historically correct, though simplified) his career as a dictator.

  • Countless historians have begun biographies of Julius Caesar include Carcopino Jerome , Joel Schmidt , Robert Stephen and Max Gallo among contemporaries. His life was taken up in more romanticized by Colleen McCullough.

  Quotations

  Also on Wikibooks the quotes "Julius Caesar".

  Several phrases attributed to Julius Caesar rose to posterity:

  • "People believe what they desire" .
  • "I'd rather be first in a village at the second Rome" .
  • "Caesar's wife must be above suspicion" .
  • " Alea is jacta . (The die is cast) ^, "
  • " Veni, vidi, vici. " (I came, I saw, I conquered)
  • " Tu quoque fili mi. " (You too my son)

  Portraits

  Of nearly two hundred portraits representing Caesar, only twenty to twenty-five are ancient and only two are considered as a representation of his life: a portrait of the archaeological museum of Turin found at Tusculum in 1825 and the museum of Arles discovered 2007 in the Rhone.

  The characteristics of these two portraits, highly individualized, the range between 50 and 44 BC. BC in the last years of the dictator.

  It differs in both cases a long neck, marked with several folds, protruding Adam's apple, small sunken eyes, the staggered arrangement of the ears, wrinkles and expression in old age (above the fossa-thyroid is a relatively rare individual mark), baldness Advanced masked by a lock of hair brought forward, then the same organization of curls on the temples. The profile drawing is identical in both representations.

  Among other ancient portraits of Caesar, two representations have become "canonical" the famous Augustan period which set up the propaganda and the official image of the deceased: that the museum Chiaramonti the Vatican and that of the Cemetery of Pisa. In both cases, the face is elongated, angular, his cheeks were hollow, his lips tight, the horizontal fringe erases all memory of baldness.

  Muse d'Arles

  Cesar Arles Turin 1.jpg Comparison of profiles of busts of Arles and Turin

  Vatican Museum, Rome

  National Archaeological Museum, Naples

  marble bust found in Pantelleria (Sicily)

  Chronology

  His life

  

  Its magistrates

  Frontinus , The Stratagems
• Nicolas of Damascus , Death of Caesar
• Plutarch , Life of Caesar [ read online ]
• Sallust , The Conspiracy of Catiline, Caesar Letters
• Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars , Book I [ read online ]
• Paterculus Velleius , Roman History, Book II [ read online ]
• The book Life of Caesar, attributed to Julius Celsus , almost contemporary author, but is Petrarch.

Modern writers

• Marie-Nicolas Bouillet and Alexis Chassang (ed.), "Julius Caesar" in Universal Dictionary of History and Geography, 1878 [ detail editions ] ( Wikisource )
• C. Iulii Commentariorum Caesaris De Bello Gallico, libri VIII Civili Pompeiano, lib. III Alexandrino, lib. I, Africano, Lib. I. Hispaniensis, lib. I. (...). Lugduni , apud Seb. Gryphium ( Lyon , Sebastien Gryphe ), 1547 ;
• ^Napoleon dictated to St. Helena a Precis of the Wars of Caesar, Paris , 1836 ;
• Napoleon III wrote a History of Julius Caesar, 1865. [ read online ];
• Theodor Mommsen , Roman History, Book V, Foundation of the military monarchy.
• Jerome Carcopino , Julius Caesar, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1990;
• Luciano Canfora , Julius Caesar, dictator Democrat, trans. by Corinne Maier Paul and Sylvie Pittier, Flammarion, Paris, 2001;
• Marius Paul Martin , Killing Caesar, Complexe, Brussels, 1988;
• Christian Meier , Caesar, Seuil, Paris, 1989;
• Max Gallo , Cesar Imperator;
• Yann Le Bohec Caesar warlord;
• Yann Le Bohec, Cesar, What do I know? No. 1049, 1994 , 128 p. (Note: book translated into Chinese, Swedish, Romanian, Bulgarian and Polish)
• Jean Malye , the true story of Julius Caesar, Les Belles Lettres, 2007 (translated and annotated texts, very good access to ancient sources);
• Robert Stephen , Julius Caesar, Fayard, Paris, 1997;
• Grard Walter , Cesar, Marabout, 1980;
• Joel Schmidt , Julius Caesar, Biographies Unreleased Folio, Gallimard, 2005.
• Eberhard Horst , Caesar, the birth of a myth, history Marabout, 1981.
• Wolfgang Will , Veni, vidi, vici. Caesar und die Kunst der Selbstdarstellung. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft / Primus, Darmstadt 2008 (Geschichte erzhlt, Vol. 11) ISBN 978-3-89678-333-2.
• Michel Rambaud, The Art of the deformation history in Caesar's Commentaries, 1953.

Notes and references

1. ^{a and b} Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 1
2. ^{a and b} Plutarch , Life of Caesar, 5

   "After his quaestor, he married his third wife Pompeia, and had Cornelia, his first wife, a daughter, who later was married to Pompey. "

   The move is a contradiction that Napoleon III , in his book, History of Julius Caesar, 1865, had already raised in his time:

   "Plutarch says that Cornelia was the first wife of Caesar, though he pretends that he married his third wife Pompeia. "

3. ^{a and b} Yann Le Bohec , Caesar in his book, What do I know?, says that fatherhood to Caesar Ptolemy XV is debated by historians. Indeed, for H. Heinen, Cesareo , son of Cleopatra , was born in 47 BC. BC works of Caesar. For Jerome Carcopino , Cesareo was born in 44 BC. AD another father.
4. Plutarch , Life of Caesar, 69, 70
5. Tacitus , Annals, XI, 25
6. Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar , 6
7. Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 46
8. Macrobius , Saturnalia, I, 12:

   "In June he succeeds in July [...] called Quintilis [...]. But afterwards, according to a law made by the consul M. Antonius, son of Marcus (Mark Antony), this month was called Julius in honor of the dictator Julius Caesar, who was born in the same month, fourth day of the Ides quintiles. "

   For Macrobius, Caesar was born on 12. This date is confirmed by the Fasti Amiternum (July 12 was observed as a holiday because Caesar was born that day) and Fasti Antiates.
9. Dio Cassius (XLVII, 18, 6) says that the games in honor of Apollo fell on the anniversary of Caesar, the triumvirate ordered in 42 to celebrate the day as the Sibylline Books that are prohibited ftt that day another god Apollo. The day before, that is to say the 12th. Dion Cassius, Caesar was thus born on 13.
10. Paterculus Velleius , Roman History Book II, 41.2:

    "He was about eighteen years old at the time when Sulla seized power and, as lieutenants and supporters of Sulla, rather than their leader himself, were looking to kill him, he changed his dress and taking clothing little to do with his condition, escaped from Rome during the night. "

    Indeed, the advent of Sulla took place in -82 , which gives good -100 's birth date as possible for Caesar.
11. Plutarch , Life of Caesar, LXXV:

    "Caesar died at the age of fifty-six years, and hardly survived only four years to Pompey. "

12. Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 88:

    "He died in the fifty-sixth year of his age, and was numbered with the gods, not only by the decree which ordered his apotheosis, but also by the crowd, convinced of his divinity. "

13. Appian , Civil Wars, Book II, 149:

    "But Caesar, despising those predictions, despite the confidence with which the diviner addressed to him, as well as other predictions that I mentioned went away and died at the age of fifty-six. "

14. Eutropius , Compendium of Roman History, Book VI, 24:

    "Upon his return to Rome the following year, Caesar was himself consul for the fourth time and went immediately to Spain where the son of Pompey, Cnaeus and Sextus, had sparked a great war. Many engagements took place, the last near the town of Munda, in which Caesar was so nearly defeated that, seeing his army give way, he was inclined to kill themselves, so that at least, after so much glory to war, it did not fall, at the age of fifty-six years at the hands of young men. "

15. The age requirements to access the various judiciaries of course honorum seem to show that Caesar was born in 102 BC. AD

    Title	Year	Minimum age required	If born in 100	If born in 102
    aedile	65	Grade 37	Grade 35	Grade 37
    praetor	62	Grade 40	Grade 38	Grade 40
    Consul	59	Grade 43	Grade 41	Grade 43

16. ^{a and b} Tacitus , Dialogue of the speakers, 28, 6
17. Cicero , Brutus
18. Cicero, Letters to Atticus
19. ^{a and b} Pliny the Elder , Natural Histories, Book VII, 53
20. Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 1
21. assumptions made by Francis Hinard, Sylla, Fayard, 1985, ( ISBN 2-213-01672-0 ) p 130
22. Plutarch relates that Caesar no other details yet hunted escaped and retired in Bithynia (Plutarch, Life of Caesar, 1), while Suetonius provides details that help explain why Caesar went to Bithynia (Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar 2)
23. Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 2 and 49
24. Plutarch, Life of Caesar, 2 and 3; Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 4
25. Plutarch and Suetonius are in complete disagreement on the chronology: Plutarch places the abduction by pirates and during Molon before the return of Caesar in Rome and the case Dolabella, while Suetonius is a short stay in Rome and the trial Dolabella first, then the episode of hackers and rhetorical studies from Molon.
26. Plutarch, Life of Caesar, 3
27. Plutarch, Life of Caesar, 5
28. Dio Cassius, Roman History, Book XXXVII, 10
29. Dio Cassius, Roman History, Book XXXVII, 27; Hinard Francis, Sylla, a book cited above, p 249-250
30. Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 13
31. Plutarch , Life of Caesar, 7
32. Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 14
33. Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 17
34. Appian, Civil Wars, Book II, 6
35. Sallust , Conspiracy of Catiline, XLIX and LI
36. Plutarch , Life of Caesar, 12; according to Appian , Caesar had 25 million sesterces debt - Appian, Civil Wars, II, 8
37. Appian , Civil Wars, II, 8; Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 18
38. Appian, Civil Wars, II, 9
39. ^{a and b} Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 19
40. Plutarch , Life of Caesar, 14
41. ^{a and b} Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 20
42. For this series of measures, cf. Appian , Civil Wars, II, 13, Dio Cassius , XXXVIII, 7, and Paterculus Velleius , Roman History, Book II, 44
43. Digest , XLVIII, 11
44. Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Caesar, 50
45. According to Appian , Servilia gave birth to Marcus Junius Brutus was Caesar when his lover, hence the assumption of paternity (Appian, Civil Wars, II, 112
46. ^{a and b} Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 22
47. law cited by Valerius Maximus , Actions and memorable lyrics, Book III, VII, 9
48. Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Caesar, 23
49. Aulus Gellius , Attic Nights, book XVII, 9
50. Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War, Books V, VI, VII
51. Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War, Books I, III, V, VI, VIII
52. Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War, Book V, 24-25
53. Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, Book VII, 81, VIII
54. Suetonius, Caesar, 26
55. Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War, Book I, 35, 40, 45
56. Plutarch, Life of Pompey, 53
57. ^{a and b} Plutarch, Life of Pompey, 54
58. Cicero, Ad Familiares, letter to Lucullus
59. Cicero, speech Provinciis Consularibus
60. Julius Caesar, The Gallic War - Book IV
61. Plutarch, Life of Caesar, 26
62. Plutarch, Life of Pompey, 55
63. ^{a and b} Paterculus Velleius, Roman History, Book II, 47
64. Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Caesar, 27
65. Plutarch, Life of Pompey, 56-59
66. Plutarch , Life of Caesar, 30
67. ^{a and b} Plutarch , Life of Caesar, 16
68. Plutarch, Life of Caesar, 32
69. Appian, Civil Wars, II, 26
70. Hirtius, Commentaries on the Gallic War, Book VIII, 50
71. Hirtius, Commentaries on the Gallic War, VIII, 52; Appian, Civil Wars, II, 27-28
72. Hirtius, Commentaries on the Gallic War, VIII, 54, 55
73. Plutarch, Life of Caesar, 33
74. Paterculus Velleius, Roman History, Book II, 49
75. Julius Caesar, Commentary on the Civil War I
76. Plutarch , Life of Caesar, 37 Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 32, picked up by Appian , Civil Wars, Book 2, 38
77. Appian , Civil War, Book II, 37-38
78. Josephus , Jewish Antiquities, Book VIII, VII, 4
79. Paterculus Velleius, Roman History, Book II, 51-53
80. ^{a , b and c} Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 35
81. Plutarch , Life of Caesar, 54-55
82. ^{a and b} Plutarch , Life of Caesar, 56
83. Dio Cassius, History of Rome, Book XLII, 52-55
84. Plutarch , Life of Caesar, 58
85. Captives which Vercingetorix to Gaul, Arsinoe II of Egypt and for the young son of Juba for Numidia
86. 22 000 beds in three tables according to Plutarch, Life of Caesar, 60
87. Paterculus Velleius, Roman History, Book II, 56
88. Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Caesar, 38
89. Paterculus Velleius, Roman History, Book II, 55
90. Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Augustus, 8
91. ^{a and b} Plutarch, Life of Caesar, 62
92. Dio Cassius, Book XLIII, 42
93. Cicero, Speech Pro Marcello, Pro Q. Ligario, Pro Rege Deiotarus
94. Dio Cassius, XLIII, 43
95. ^{a and b} Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 40
96. Cassius Dio , XLIV, 7, 2-3
97. Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus , Lucius Minucius Basilus, Servius Sulpicius Galba, Caius Trebonius cited in the index of the edition of Maurice Rat's Gallic Wars, Garnier Flammarion, Paris, 1964
98. ^{a , b and c} Marcel Le Glay , Rome, The Rise and Decline of the Republic, Ed Perrin, 1990, republished in 2005 ( ISBN 2262018979 ), p 49-51
99. D. Sedley, "The Ethics of Brutus and Cassius," Journal of Roman Studies, 87, 1997, pp. 41-53
100. Plutarch, Life of Brutus, 10-13
101. Appian, Civil Wars, II, 107
102. Paterculus Velleius, Roman History, Book II, 57
103. Plutarch, Life of Caesar ', 16'
104. ^{a , b , c and d} Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 82
105. Plutarch, Life of Caesar, 65 and Life of Brutus, 17; Paterculus Velleius, II, 56; Nicolas of Damascus, Caesar, 24, Cassius Dio, XLIV, 19; Appian, Civil Wars, II, 117-118; Flavius Josephus , Iudeorum Bellum, I, 218; Valerius Maximus, IV, 5, 6 and VIII, 11, 2; Florus, II, 13; Eutropius, VI, 17, 5; Orosius, History, VI, 20
106. Valerius Publicola nearly lost his life, Sp Cassius , Manlius Capitolinus the Gracchi were the victims
107. Suetonius, Caesar, 79, Plutarch, Caesar, 66
108. Suetonius, "Caesar", 79, Plutarch, Caesar, 66
109. Suetonius, "Caesar", 78, Plutarch, Caesar, 66
110. Paterculus Velleius, Roman History, Book II, 56; Suetonius, Caesar, 79, Plutarch, 67
111. Plutarch, Caesar, 67
112. Plutarch, Life of Caesar, 66
113. Joel Schmidt, Julius Caesar Biography Folio, Gallimard, 2005, ( ISBN 2-07-030683-6 )
114. M. Christol, D. Nony, Rome and its empire from its origins to the barbarian invasions, Hachette, collection HU, 2003, ( ISBN 2011455421 )
115. Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution, Paris, Gallimard, 1967, p 63
116. Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 86-87
117. Plutarch, Life of Caesar, 63 and Appian, Civil Wars, II, 115
118. Accoce and Rentchnick, Those patients who govern us, Stock, 1976
119. Rgis Martin, The Twelve Caesars, Les Belles Lettres 1991
120. ^{a and b} Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 83
121. Appian , Civil Wars, II, 148
122. Paterculus Velleius, Roman History, Book II, 58
123. See the section on the reliability of the Commentary on the Gallic Wars and Rambaud, op. cit. in "Bibliography".
124. See the section on the reliability of the Commentary on the Civil War
125. Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 56
126. Pierre Grimal , Latin Literature, p. 183.
127. ^{a and b} Suetonius, Lives of Twelve Caesars, Caesar, 61
128. The exact number is unknown. Suetonius speaks of a thousand senators, but according to modern works, the number of senate passes to 800 senators (Mr. Christol, D. Nony, Rome and its empire from its origins to the barbarian invasions, Hachette, collection HU, 2003, ( ISBN 2011455421 )) or 900 (Hacquard George, Jean Dautry, O Maisani Guide ancient Roman, Hachette, 1952, 50 ^th edition in 2005 ( ISBN 2010004884 ))
129. Dio Cassius, XLIII, 25
130. Suetonius, Lives of Twelve Caesars, Caesar, 26
131. Appian, Civil Wars, II, 68
132. Suetonius, Caesar, 39
133. Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Caesar, 44
134. ^{a and b} Carcopino Jerome , Daily Life in Rome at the height of the Empire, Hachette, 1939, reissued 2002 ( ISBN 201279078X ), Chapter I, II
135. Suetonius, Caesar, 41, Augustus, 40
136. Martial, IV, 64; Juvenal, III, 256
137. DEPEYROT George, The Roman Mint: 211 Ave. AD - 476 AD. J.-C., Wandering, 2006, ( ISBN 2877723305 )
138. ; According to Pliny the Elder , the public treasury amounted then to 15 000 pounds of gold bullion , 35,000 pounds of silver ingots and also 40 million sesterces (cf. Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories, book XXXIII, 17)
139. The numismatist Henry Cohen identifies an issue, however, gold's proconsul Pompey driving his chariot of triumph in 67 BC. BC (Pompey C19). This show gold knew no more.
140. Henry Cohen , Description historic coins minted under the Roman Empire, coins of Caesar, Paris, 1892,
141. About 10% of emissions, according to Georges DEPEYROT, cf. book cited
142. According to Pliny the Elder , Natural History Book VII, the name comes from an ancestor born with "cesarean."

     "Children whose mothers die while giving them the day, are born under better auspices: thus was born Scipio Africanus the elder, and the first of the Caesars, so called from the Caesarean operation that was his mother. "

143. Sextus Pompeius Festus From the meaning of words, Book III
144. History Augustus , Aelius, II, 3
145. Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Caesar, 26
146. Plutarch , Life of Caesar, 10
147. Plutarch , Life of Caesar, 7 - Especially when his son is applying for the election of hard pontifex maximus
148. Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 74

     "Called as a witness against Publius Clodius, who was once accused of sacrilege and Pompeia convicted of adultery with his wife, he [Caesar] claimed to know nothing, although his mother Aurelia and his sister Julie had faithfully reported to the same judges whole truth. "

149. Appian , Civil War, Book III, 22-23
150. Octave, born in 63 BC. BC , delivered his eulogy in 12 years - Suetonius, Augustus, 8
151. Any interpretation of this passage is based on the translation of dimissa. The verb dimittere always seems to have been used by Suetonius to the meaning of divorce. (In) Monroe E. Deutsch, Caesar's first wife, Classical Philology, Vol. 12, No. 1. (Jan. 1917), pp. 93-96
152. Plutarch , Life of Caesar 5.6
153. Tacitus , Annals, Book III, VI

     "... And the divine Julius, deprived of his only daughter"

154. Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 52

     "Some Greek authors wrote that this son like him to face and gait, Mr. Antony declared in the senate, that Caesar had acknowledged, and he invoked the testimony of C. Matius, C. Oppius, and other friends of the dictator. But Gaius Oppius thought it necessary to defend and justify this point, and published a book to prove that the son of Cleopatra was not, as she said, the son of Caesar. "

155. Plutarch , Life of Brutus, 5

     "They say that in this day, Caesar showed him the keenest interest: he recommended to his officers not to kill him in battle, and, if he went voluntarily to bring him, if he does defended against those who would stop, to let go, and do him no violence. "

156. Plutarch , Life of Brutus, 5

     "He wanted to, they say, by requiring that Servilia, Brutus' mother, who loved her madly: and as Brutus was born while his passion was in full force, Caesar was convinced he was the father. "

157. ^{a , b , c and d} Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 50
158. Plutarch , Life of Brutus, 5
159. Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 51
160. Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 52 a href = "http://bcs.fltr.ucl.ac.be/suet/caes/52.htm" class = "external text" rel = "nofollow"> translation of the extract
161. Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 52

     "He went up the Nile with her on a cabin cruiser with, and he weaves throughout Egypt and penetrated to Ethiopia, where the army had refused to follow them. "

162. Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 52

     "Finally he summoned to Rome, and never sent that filled with honors and awards magnificent. "

163. Plutarch , Life of Caesar, 1:

     "One day he was sick and he was obliged to wear to change houses, night fell into the hands of soldiers of Sylla, who did research in this township"

     (In Suetonius, this disease is also certified as the "ague")
164. Plutarch , Life of Caesar, 18:

     "... Because he had white skin and delicate body was frail and subject to frequent headaches and attacks of epilepsy, which he felt had first access to Cordoba. But far from being, the weakness of his temperament, an excuse to live in luxury, he sought in the years of war a cure for his disease; "

165. Plutarch , Life of Caesar, 58:

     "Others claim that Caesar was not present in the action than when he kept his army and gave his orders, he was seized with a fit of epilepsy, to which he was subject; that, where they felt the first attacks and it was already before the quake, before the disease had him fully removed the use of his senses and his strength, he had himself carried into a neighboring towers, where he waited in the end rest of the access. "

     (To Thapsus)
166. Plutarch , Life of Caesar, 66:

     "LXVI: He did not deign to rise in their arrival, and giving the audience more as private individuals, he said he had reduced his honor rather than increase. The senate was not more mortified at this height that the people themselves, who thought he saw in Rome despised affected disdain for Senators, and all those who were not forced to stay in state, returned the head down and in mournful silence. Caesar saw it, and returned on the spot in his house there, discovered the chest, he shouted to his friends he was ready to present the first who would kill him. Finally, he apologized on its common illness, which, he said, deprives those who have attacked the use of their senses when they speak up before a large assembly, first entered a general tremor, they experience dizziness and glare that deny all knowledge. "

     (In an incident with the Senate a few weeks before his death: a possible loss of consciousness followed by a fit of uncontrolled anger)
167. Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 4:

     "... And, not without the utmost indignation, he remained their prisoner within about forty days, having beside him a doctor and two slaves of her room service;"

     (When he was a prisoner of pirates at the beginning of his life: the presence of a doctor at his side did mean something?)
168. Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 45:

     "... Twice as he was suffering from epilepsy in the performance of his public duties (epileptic morbo bis quoque res inter diaries correptus is). "

     (Without further precision)
169. Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 59:

     "Moreover, having fallen in leaving his ship, he turned in a direction favorable omen and said this:" Africa, I want you! ""

     (It takes feet on the carpet or it becomes uncomfortable?)
170. Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 81:

     "All these omens, and poor state of his health, caused him to hesitate long if not stay home and do not call to another day what he had to propose to the Senate. "

     (The morning of his death)
171. Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, LVII:

     "He excelled in handling arms and horses, and he endured fatigue beyond what you may believe. On the march he preceded his army, sometimes on horseback, but mostly on foot, and head still bare, despite the sun or rain. He crossed the longer distances with incredible speed, without dressing, in a hackney coach, and he was well up to a hundred miles a day. If the river stopped, he was going to swim or inflated skins "

172. Appian , Civil Wars, Book II, 110:

     "For its part, whether he would abandon his hopes, either because he was tired and chercht now attempts to avoid these or these maneuvers slanderous, or that he wished to withdraw from the city because of its opponents, is that it should desire to treat a disease, manifested as unconsciousness and convulsions, which affected especially during periods of inactivity, he planned a major campaign against the Dacians and the Parthians. "

173. Nicolas of Damascus , the death of Caesar:

     "On this day, in fact, friends of Caesar, influenced by some bad omens, wanted to prevent going to the Senate, his doctors, worried that he was dizzy sometimes tormented, and who came to seize him again, dissuade him from their side; "

     (The day of his death at the time to go to the Senate, as evidenced by other authors)
174. lesGauchers.com: Carte Blanche Pierre-Michel Bertrand
175. Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War III.18
176. Plutarch , Life of Caesar XII
177. Cicero , Letters to Atticus 1.13; Plutarch , Life of Caesar 9-10-11; Dio Cassius , Roman History 37.45; Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar 6.2
178. Suetonius , Lives of the Twelve Caesars - Caesar, 32
179. Plutarch , Life of Caesar, 37
180. Yann Le Bohec , Caesar in his book, What do I know? says that Asinius Pollio , contemporary author of Caesar left works, now lost, which contained extensive information on events. This book served as the source for many later writers like Florus and Suetonius.
181. The Jewish Antiquities of Flavius Josephus concern primarily the relationship between Caesar and the Jewish people.
182. The Schemes Frontin deal with the military strategy employed by Caesar.

See also

• Roman Republic
• Gallic Wars
• Comments on the Gallic Wars
• Comments on the Civil War
• Battle of Pharsalia
• Gaul
• First Triumvirate

External Links

• (En) Julius Caesar on the site memo.fr

The Parallel Lives of Plutarch
Romulus and Theseus Numa Pompilius and Lycurgus Valerius Publicola and Solon Coriolanus and Alcibiades Camille and Themistocles Fabius Maximus and Pericles Claudius Marcellus and Pelopidas Scipio Africanus and Epaminondas Cato and Aristides Aemilius Paullus and Timoleon Quinctius Flaminius and Philopoemen Tiberius Gracchus & Gaius Gracchus and Agis & Cleomenes Marius and Pyrrhus Sylla and Lysander Sertorius and Eumenes Lucullus and Cimon Cicero and Demosthenes Crassus and Nicias Pompey and Agesilaus Julius Caesar Alexander the Great Cato of Utica and Phocion Brutus and Dion Mark Antony and Demetrius Galba and Otho and Aratus and Artaxerxes
List of publications Translation online at: Hodoi Elektronikai remacle.org Wikisource

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Version of August 18, 2007 This article has been accepted as "good article", that is to say that it meets quality standards for style, clarity, relevance, citation of sources and illustration.

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