Otto Iii, Holy Roman Emperor
| Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor | |
|---|---|
 Illumination of the abbey of Reichenau (Gospels of Otto III, c. 1000, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich). | |
| Dynasty | Ottonian |
| Country | Germany |
| Title | King of Germany Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire |
| Coronation | 983 |
| Rite | 996 |
| Successor | Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor |
| Other functions | Duke of Saxony |
| Biography | |
| Birth | 980 Cleves |
| Deaths | 23 January 1002 |
| Child | Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor and Theophano |
Otto III (or Otho III) was born in June or July 980 in the Royal Forest of Kessel near Cleves , and died on 23 or 24 January 1002 at Paterno (Lazio) , on Mount Soracte in Italy. Prince of Ottonian lineage , he is king of the Romans from 983 and Holy Roman Emperor from 996 to 1002.
After the death of his father Otto II occurred on 7 December 983 , he was crowned king of the Romans 25 December 983 at Aix-la-Chapelle at the age of three years. Prince Henry the Wrangler then removes it and tries to be awarded guardianship. But the archbishop of Mainz Willigis , supported by other large, condemns the usurpation and imposes the regency of his mother, Princess Byzantine Theophano. After the death of the latter in 991 , is Adelaide , grandmother of the emperor, who assures her tutelage.
In 995 , Otto was major and officially took power, he dreams of founding a universal empire that would bring together all the first Christian nations of the West. It intervenes in the affairs of the Church and imposed against the advice of rebel cities of the Italian peninsula its own candidates to the papal throne. There is thus put his hand man, also his cousin, Bruno of Carinthia, the first Pope of Germanic origin, known as Gregory V.. Crowned emperor by the latter on 21 May 996 , Otto moved his court to Rome : his reign, Italy becomes the seat of imperial government.
With help from Gerbert d'Aurillac , the schoolmaster of Rheims , who was his tutor and he was elected pope in 999 , Otto approximates Poland and sent to Stephen of Hungary 's first royal crown of this country.
In an article in January 1001 , relations between the Pope Sylvester II and Emperor are redefined. Otto III refused to confirm the Privilegium Ottonianum given by Otto I in 962. The emperor gives the sovereign pontiff of the eight counties Pentapolis. Otto III sees himself as "Slave of the Apostles," the direct representative of Peter and the head of his heritage. He wants to govern Christendom and starts on the same plane as the Pope, with whom he wants to preside over the synod Background During the second half of the tenth century, Ottonian Dynasty are the most powerful West. Otto I , thanks to a powerful customer, was able to end the incursions of the Magyars in inflicting a severe defeat at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955. Following this victory against the Hungarians, Otto I restored the south of Germany, the steps of Ostmark (later Austria), whose Babenberg will become Margraves until the thirteenth century . Otto I also reconstituted the march of Carinthia , and appears as the defender of Christianity . The same year he defeated the Slavs Abodrites in Mecklenburg . These victories also enable it to play a major role on the European level. He obtained the allegiance of the kings of Burgundy. Faced with the Slavs, he led a genuine policy of eastward expansion. It establishes the steps to the east of the Elbe : Billungs walking around the bishopric of Oldenburg , Nordmark (former name of Brandenburg ) and three small steps in the Sorbs . In 968 he founded the Archbishopric of Magdeburg , with suffragan bishops in Meissen , Merseburg and Zeitz , in order to convert the peoples Slavs of the Elbe. Mieszko I. , first king of Poland history, paid tribute to him 966 . In Germany , Otto I makes Bohemia tributary and defeated the dukes of Franconia and Lorraine. Pope John XII , threatened by the expansionist plans of the King of Lombardy Berenger II , must apply for protection of Otto I . It may well be crowned emperor and enact the 13 February 962 , the Privilegium Ottonianum , which gives the sovereign pontiff the same privileges as the Carolingians had recognized the Papacy, namely the donations made by Pepin the Short and Charlemagne , but requires all new pope to swear allegiance to the emperor or his envoy before receiving the papal consecration. While providing benefits to the Holy See , the place Privilegium Ottonianum Trust imperial papacy. The pope who tried to oppose the takeover by allying with the son of Berenger and Byzantines, Otto returned to Italy at the head of his army and shall cause the 4 December 963. John XII was replaced by a layman, who took the name of Leo VIII. Otto I also swear to the Romans "that elects not to order any pope without the consent of the lord or his son Otto. " The Ottonian then completely control the election of the pope and the pope's collaboration ensures the imperial authority over local churches of the Holy Roman Empire. Like Charlemagne, Otto received the mission of Rome to defend the peace and order in Christendom. The new emperor increases its power over the Western Francia by focusing on all the bishoprics Border (Reims, Verdun, Metz). The Archbishop of Rheims (which provides a choice of French kings) Adalberon tends to show his sympathy Imperial . On the death of their fathers in 954 and 956 , Lothair , the new king of the Franks , was only 13 years and Hugh Capet , the elder Robertians only 15. Otto I mean when put under trusteeship Francia, which is possible since it is the maternal uncle of two teenagers. The kingdom of France, 954, and the principality Robertians, in 956, are placed under the tutelage of Bruno , Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lorraine , brother of Otto I.. Its objective is to maintain the balance between Robertians, the Carolingians and Ottonian . Guardianship of Hugh Capet is doubled by that of Lothair. In 960 , King of the Franks agrees to go to Hugh the legacy of his father, the marquis of Neustria and the title of duke of the Franks. But in return, the Duke must accept the new independence gained by the counts of Neustria during the power vacuum . His brother, Otto gets only the duchy of Burgundy . Under the tutelage of Bruno of Cologne, France is increasingly satellise by Aix-la-Chapelle. In 965 , Lothaire is so pale in the gathering of relatives and vassals of Otto. Have a powerful enough customers to control the empire requires large financial resources. With the widespread penny of money by the Carolingians, an economic revolution is underway become marketable agricultural surpluses and there is, throughout the West, increased productivity and increased trade. In Italy and Germany together in one empire, Otto I controlled the main trade routes between Northern Europe and the Mediterranean. Commercial traffic with Byzantium and the East indeed passes from the Mediterranean to southern Italy and especially the basin of the Po and joined that of the Rhine via the Roman roads through the Alpine passes. This pathway is, at the time, used more than the traditional way Rhone because the Adriatic is safer than the western Mediterranean, where rampant pirates Saracen. The Ottonian have kept the grip on the tolls levied on traffic and develop markets to increase it. Thus, contrary to what happens in France, they retain a monopoly on coin production and are open silver mining near Goslar . However, the establishment of a mint in a city or an abbey involves the creation of a market can be collected the tonlieu . This market power allows them to buy the customer which is the basis of their power, but also to extend their influence to the periphery of the Empire: Italian or English merchants need their support, the Slavs adopted the denier silver ... Under the Carolingians, the gradual establishment of heredity burden had greatly weakened their authority. To avoid such a drift, based on the Ottonian Church Germanic they fill with benefits but they subjugate. The bishops and abbots are the backbone of the administration Ottonian. The Emperor ensure the appointment of all members of the clergy Top of the Empire. Once appointed, they receive the investiture of the ruler symbolized by the insignia of their position, the butt and the ring. In addition to their spiritual mission, they must meet their temporal tasks delegated to the emperor. The imperial authority is thus backed by competent and dedicated . This Church of the Empire or Reichskirche ensures the soundness of a poor state of own resources. It helps to counterbalance the power of feudal lords (duke of Bavaria , Swabia , Franconia , Lorraine ). The bishopric of Utrecht is, until about 1100, the most powerful entity in the Netherlands North, like those of Liege and Cambrai to the Netherlands from South . Imperial power selects his lords preferably in its relatives , close or extended. It enjoys the highest episcopal or monastic. The best example is the brother of Otto, Bruno of Cologne, Archbishop of Cologne , which requires the rule of the Abbey Gorze on all the monasteries of his diocese . Another example is Thierry I. , cousin of Otto, bishop of Metz from 965 to 984; a close relative of Otto, Margrave of Saxony Gero , who founded the Abbey Gernrode to 960-961, in Saxony ; Gerberge, niece of the Emperor, abbess of Our Lady of Gandersheim. The Ottonian Empire is still relatively decentralized and, unlike the bishops whose charge is delivered into the hands of the emperor after death, the great feudal inheritance enjoy their possessions. Therefore, the sovereign has little control over them and large aristocratic families supported by strong client are able to challenge his power. Otto II and must cope with the whims of the powerful Duke of Bavaria, his cousin Henry the Wrangler . Indeed, the dukes of Bavaria have the bishoprics in southern Germany that they attribute to their family members. Bavaria imposed its suzerainty in much of today's Austria and south to the Adriatic Sea and Lake Garda. Ally Boleslav II of Bohemia , to Mieszko I of Poland , the Danish and Slavic minorities, Henry is able to threaten the young Otto II, who must defeat militarily, and its allies to effectively take power. This danger reappears every weakening of imperial power. This is the first challenge faced by Otto III and his mother, the regent Theophano, death of Otto II. Throughout his reign, Otto II must fight on its borders. To the west, the Carolingian family want their cradle which could allow them to claim the crown imperial Lotharingia. To the north, the Danes or to the east, Slavs allied with its enemies. To the south, he must fight against the Byzantines and Saracens for control of the southern peninsula. It is therefore an empire more fragile than it appears qu'hrite Otto III in 983 . Otto III has only two years in July 982, when the imperial army was wiped out in Calabria by the Saracens at the Battle of Cape Colonna. Her father Otto II was then in deep trouble and must seek reinforcements in Germany. It is common at the time, to crown her successor during his lifetime, especially when the sovereign is the head of the army that the country does not suffer from political turmoil in case of death on the battlefield: Otto It is thus linked to the ring by his father Otto I from 967; well Hugues Capet was crowned Robert the Pious at the beginning of his reign because he has to give aid to his vassal Borrell II , whose county of Barcelona is threatened by Saracens . Otto III is elected King of the Romans by the major of Germany and Italy at the age of three years, the lifetime of his father, during a royal bank in Verona in May 983. The sources do not tell us why it was necessary at this time, ensure the succession to the throne of the infant son of the sovereign, but it is possible that the defeat of Cape Colonna has weakened the position of the emperor vis--vis of his vassals and he wanted to strengthen the dynastic succession, the principle is not guaranteed by the electoral system used in the Holy Roman Empire. After taking leave of the Electors of the ban, Otto III crosses the Alps to be crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle , traditional city of the coronation of Ottonian. When the child is crowned king at Aix-la-Chapelle at Christmas the year 983 by the archbishop of Mainz Willigis and John of Ravenna , his father Otto II is already dead for three weeks. Only after the coronation festivities that the court learned of the death of the sovereign, which "concludes the festivities . The destruction of the imperial army at the Battle of Cape Colonna also has serious consequences on the periphery. The Slavs , who resent their forced Christianization, see it as an opportunity to raise . They destroy the bishoprics of Brandenburg and Magdeburg Havelberg and threaten. Learning that the new king is a child, they redouble their incursions: the dioceses of Schleswig and Oldenburg were destroyed in turn . In conjunction with the Danes, the Sorbs reach Hamburg. The early success of Christian missionaries in the east of the Elbe are cleared by the uprising of the Slavs . The only remaining Germanic presence in the east of the river is the outpost of Meissen . The death of Otto II causes many uprisings against the representatives of royal power in Italy. This precarious situation leads many bishops to distance themselves vis--vis the child king so that they form the backbone of Ottonian power: appointed by the emperor who gets their dependents when they die, they is normally a loyal customer base ensures that the power of the emperor vis--vis its vassals. As head of the house of Bavaria, Henry the Wrangler is the closest relative of Otto. He was jailed in Utrecht in the wake of an armed rebellion. Bishop Folcmar him what makes his freedom from the known death of Otto II. The Archbishop of Cologne, based on their relationship (jus propinquitatis), immediately return it to the young king. This is not surprising, because in addition to the mother of Otto, Theophano, his grandmother Adelaide of Burgundy and his aunt Matilda of Quedlinburg are then in Italy. The aim less carried the Wrangler to corner the regency to ensure a genuine sharing of power with the child at the head of the kingdom. For Lothair Carolingian king of the Franks, the control of Lorraine - the cradle of Pippinides - allow him to claim the empire. Having failed to secure the imperial tutelage, Lothair renounced the approximation that negotiated vis--vis the Ottonian to neutralize his rival Hugh Capet, and decided to resume the offensive against the Lorraine in January 985 at the head of an army of 10,000 men. It takes Verdun in March and captured the Earl Godfrey I de Verdun (brother of Adalberon Reims ), Frederick (son of Godfrey I.)Siegfried of Luxembourg (uncle of Godfrey) and Thierry I of Lorraine (nephew Hugues Capet) . Hugh Capet was careful not to be part of the expedition . Henry promptly organized a meeting in Breisach with Lothario, parent of the young Otto III to the same degree as he . But Henry, fearing it face to face with his rival for the imperial crown, hastily left Cologne, where he took the young Otto, and share in Saxony via Corvey . There, he invited all the nobles of the empire to celebrate Palm Sunday in Magdeburg. Opened its proposal to proclaim his accession receives a mixed reception among his guests. There is however enough supporters to win Quedlinburg and to celebrate Easter with a loyal following in the tradition of Ottonian. Henry tries through deals with the princes present to get his elevation to the throne and succeeded him in what many "swear to honor and support as their king and overlord" . Among his supporters, we must mention Mieszko I of Poland, Boleslav II of Bohemia and the Slav Prince Mistivo. To stand in the way of Henry to the throne, leaving his opponents and Quedlinburg, meeting Asselburg tower , form a conspiracy. When he gets wind of this conspiracy, Henry leads his troops in Werl , not far from his enemies, to intimidate or attempt to reason with them. He sent them to the bishop of Utrecht Folcmar to negotiate. But at the talks, it is clear that his opponents are not willing to lend "their oath as king . He obtained the promise of resumption of talks later Seesen. Meanwhile, Henry wins the Bavaria, where he earned the gratitude of all the bishops and several counts. After his partial failure in Saxony and the support of Bavaria, all now depends on the position of the Frankish princes, who do not want any price to return to the coronation of Otto III. Fearing the outcome of any conflict, Henry renounces the throne and return the child king to his mother and his grandmother on 29 June 984 at Rohr (Thuringia). The Empress Adelaide, which has fifty years, has the political stature to claim the regency because it was associated with the management of the Empire (consors imperii) during the reign of her husband Otto I, as reflect much of the acts issued by the Chancery. But Theophano required by its unique personality and Adelaide merely a delegation of power in Italy : from 985 to his death in 991, Otto III's mother then carries the full power. Theophano settled north of the Alps . It seeks to restore the bishopric of Merseburg, her husband Otto II was dissolved in 981. She reorganized the royal chapel of Otto II and entrusts the direction of the bishop Chancellor Hildebold Worms and Archbishop Willigis of Mainz. For their loyalty, these two prelates manage to ensure the role of senior advisor to the Empress. In 986, Otto III, then aged six, is organizing the celebration of Easter in Quedlinburg. The king's service is entrusted to four dukes Henry the Wrangler as an carver , Conrad of Swabia as chamberlain , Henry the Younger of Carinthia as' butler and Bernard of Saxony as Marshal . It has already staged the service at the coronation of the dukes of Otto the Great in 936 and Otto II in 961: Large demonstrating their loyalty to the young king. In particular, Henry the Wrangler task to forget his attempt to usurp missed two years earlier and shows her submission to the royal dignity. During the regency of the quarrel broke out Theophano a href = "Abbaye_de_Gandersheim" alt = "Abbey Gandersheim"> Gandersheim, pitting the diocese of Hildesheim to the archbishopric of Mainz for the administration of the abbey. The quarrel broke out when Sophie , the sister of the king, refuses to receive the habit of a nun from the hands of Father Superior of Hildesheim, Bishop Osdag , preferring the archbishop of Mainz Willigis. The threat of a scandal in the presence of King Otto III and regent can be avoided by a compromise: two bishops must return to the princess dress, while the other nuns to take only the clothes Osdag . The Duke of Poland Mieszko repeatedly pressed the Saxons by mobilizing a large army and was sworn to Otto during the campaign, offering him a gift of a camel . To the west, the death of Lothair in March 986 puts an end to his claim on Lorraine (birthplace of the Carolingians and the possession of which can claim the Empire) . His son and successor, Louis V , barely has time to take power and consent to make peace when he died of a hunting accident in the forest of Senlis , in late May 987 . The Archbishop of Rheims , a fervent support Ottonniens, elected Hugh Capet legitimate contender against Charles of Lower Lorraine , brother of the deceased . The advent of the Capetian throne of France introduces a new dynasty and the Carolingians, ousted from power, are no longer a danger to the Empire or for Lorraine. East, relations with Bohemia are consolidated without that Poland did take umbrage . External dangers neutralized, Otto, who has nothing to fear from the Germanic princes, can indulge in the dream has had to maintain her mother, wearing the crown of a unified Western Empire. In 989, Theophano takes the road to Rome without his son to pray for the salvation of the soul of her husband Otto II on the anniversary of his death. Received at Pavia , she entrusts the reins of power to his trusted man, Jean Philagathos , she made archbishop of Piacenza. Theophanes died in Nijmegen on 15 June 991 , a year after his return from Italy, with Otto III at his bedside. She is buried in the crypt of the Basilica of St Pantaleon in Cologne. It is unclear what the latest tips Theophano the young king. The basilica Theophano that wanted to erect in memory of her husband Otto II, and which she had entrusted the management to his niece, the Abbess Matilda of Essen , daughter of Duke Ludolph of Swabia , was begun by Otto III in 999, during the translation of the relics of St. Marsus . The king, meanwhile, makes no comparable efforts for the salvation of his mother. He calls in his acts of "beloved mother" and made rich gifts to the diocese of Cologne. In recent years a minority of Otto, his grandmother took the Regency Adelaide, largely assisted by the Abbess Matilda of Quedlinburg , her paternal aunt, and the archbishop of Mainz Willigis. It was under her regency that the coinage of the kingdom reached its peak . By cons, while Theophano wanted to restore any force the diocese of Merseburg, Adelaide do not hold. Otto, broke the profession of arms, led the reconquest of Brandenburg . At fourteen he was ready to take the reins of power. Otto III receives a solid education: its teachers are Hoico, a Saxon count charge of teaching him the art of war and the rituals and customs of the - future - "Chivalry", Willigis which remains one of his top advisers, Saxon a cleric Bernard of Hildesheim (987 to 993) and Bishop Calabrian Philagathos John , the future antipope , who taught him some rudiments of Greek . In 996, arrived at adolescence and then he already reigns, it feels inadequately educated. He asked Gerbert d'Aurillac , then Archbishop of Rheims, considered the greatest mind of his time to come complete its investigation . The latter is in a weak position vis--vis the Holy See since he became head of the Episcopate of Western Francia in the conflict between Hugh Capet (which Gerbert was secretary) to Arnold who has the support of Pope . Gerbert was then under threat of excommunication and the bishops who sat in the council of St. Basle Verzy. This excommunication group opens the door to a schism between the Church of Gaul and Rome. The king, Robert the Pious , seeks to spare the pope because he married his cousin without the approval of the Holy See, and Gerbert coward who was his tutor and he is very close. Gerbert prefers to give up and responded favorably to the request of the young emperor, this solution enables it to escape excommunication and avoid schism. Tutor of the emperor, he introduced him to arithmetic, music and philosophy . Become his adviser, he wishes to apply the principles of philosophy to politics: for the use of reason teaches moderation and control of passions. He writes for the Emperor a treatise on logical reasoning and use of reason, which opens with a program of renovation of the Roman empire, whereas the emperor, half-Greek by his mother, is Similarly reconstruct a universal empire . In 994, Otto III was fourteen which, for the canons of the time, means that adults: the High Middle Ages, a ritual act, the knighthood , usually punishes the passage. But in the case of Otto, the dubbing would have meant the end of the regency and the beginning of the reign staff, whose sources do not report. A diploma of 6 July 994 , whereby Otto offers his sister Sophie stronghold of Eschwege , is sometimes considered the first personal act of King . Anyway, Otto made many donations as he is still a minor. Otto takes his first decrees and appoints cons use an Germain at the head of Italian cases of Chancery: his trusted, Archbishop Heribert of Cologne. The same year, in Regensburg, Otto gives the Mitre of Bishop to his chaplain Gebhard , instead of the prelate Tagino, elected by the Chapter of Regensburg. During the summer of 995 , he called the bank to Quedlinburg and, with the help of troops from Bohemia and Poland, begins during the winter of 994-995 and again in the spring 995 in a military campaign more north against the rebels of the Elbe Slavs , expeditions, from the uprising of 983, resumed almost every year . Upon his return, he significantly expanded the Diocese of Meissen and multiplies the benefits of tithing. In September 995, we dispatch Philagathos Archbishop John and the Bishop Bernard of Wrzburg in Byzantium to seek the hand of a princess on the part of Otto III . Negotiations with Byzantium as a result there shortly before the death of Otto, we know the name of the princess who had promised him. Otto III went to Italy to be crowned, but also to answer the call for help from Pope John XV who was attacked and driven from Rome by the prefect Crescentius and his supporters. Otto leaves Regensburg starts for Rome in March 996. In Verona, he agreed to become godfather to a son of Doge Pietro II Orseolo inaugurating the traditionally cordial relations between the Ottonian and Venice. At Pavia , Otto received a delegation Roman entrusted the choice of successor to the late Pope John XV. He is still at Ravenna as pope when he called his parents and private chaplain Brown Carinthia , and is accompanied by the archbishop of Mainz and Bishop Willigis Hildebold to Rome, where he is first Pope of Germanic origin to receive the papal tiara . The day after his arrival in Rome, Otto was joyously acclaimed by the Senate and the nobility. On May 21, 996, day of the Ascension , he was crowned emperor of the Romans by the pope he called . With the appointment of the Pope himself, Otto III went beyond the expectations of his grandfather Otto I, to the extent that it no longer content to accept the outcome of a vote but imposes its own candidate for the Roman Curia. But because of this discretionary appointment, the Pope has more followers in Rome and reported depends more on the support of the emperor. Already in the reign of Otto I, these circumstances had opposed the popes loyal to the emperor and the candidates of the Roman nobility. The influential patrician dynasty was Crescentii and its authority to the sale of papal rights and profits from the province of Sabina in the early Italian popes. Amid the bustle of the coronation ceremonies, it was decided to convene a synod , in which close cooperation between the emperor and the pope is manifested in the co-chair of the synod and the double signing of decrees. This synod is also Otto in connection with two outstanding personalities, which will strongly influence the rest of his life. Gerbert d'Aurillac , archbishop of Reims, close to the emperor who wrote several letters on his behalf, and Adalbert of Prague A representative of the current ascetic and hermit who makes more and more fans with the approach of the year one thousand. Gerbert d'Aurillac, at odds with former Pope John XV, there is the opportunity for imperial support. The situation is very tense between the papacy and the church in France because Gerbert was appointed bishop of Reims by Hugh Capet without papal approval, it is so close to the schism between the papacy and the church. Caught unawares, the new Pope avoids decided at the Synod, but influenced by his chancellorship, he decided to remain firm vis--vis Gerbert . When Hugh Capet died on October 24, 996, Robert the Pious married his cousin Bertha of Burgundy while this consanguineous union was banned by Pope . He quickly alienated the Roman nobility. In the last days of September 996, just months after the intercession of Pope Gregory V was pardoned by Otto III, who relies on the clementia of Caesars, a key concept of the exercise of power among Ottonian, Crescentius began to hunt Gregory V in Rome. Crescentius conspires with the Archbishop of Piacenza and former adviser to Theophanes, John Philagathos , to elect an antipope. But Otto III, rather than to intervene immediately, gives priority to safeguarding the Saxon borders. He returned to Germany. From December 996 to April 997, he stays in the Rhineland, including Aix-la-Chapelle. But we do not know the details of this part of his reign, such as holding banns. It starts in the summer of 997, a new campaign against the Slavs of the Elbe. Once crowned Emperor Otto III The synod met at Pavia, where Gregory V took refuge after being driven from Rome by Crescentius. It is decided that Robert the Pious and his wife must come and explain and possibly be excommunicated. This synod also condemned the bishops of the council of Saint Basil who deposed Arnulf . While the Emperor defies first Gerbert d'Aurillac, he asked a few months later, the Archbishop of Rheims to enter his service: it's about helping Otto III to rob it of its grossness (hardiness) Saxon, and do access the fineness (subtilitas) Greek . Only in December 997 he returns to Italy. It is unknown the exact number of his army, but it is accompanied by the princes and prelates of the Empire, with the exception of his "dearest sister (dilectissima soror) Sophie, who was accompanied on his coronation in Rome, and who resides with him at Aix-la-Chapelle. There is now no more question of his presence in court. Lorsqu'Otton III enters Italy in February 998, the Romans adopted a conciliatory attitude and let go to Rome without a fight. Meanwhile, the prefect Crescentius I. Nomentanus barricaded himself in the Castel Sant'Angelo. The antipope John XVI fled from Rome and took refuge in a dungeon, but he is captured by a detachment of the imperial army. Gregory V is merciless to one who has usurped his position: he made out the eyes, nose and pull off the tongue. Otto III does nothing to save or soothe the pain of one who was his tutor, and despite the intercession of the hermit Nilus of Rossano , who is pleading with the papal and imperial . Returned to Rome, Jean Philagathos is tried by a synod and dragged through the streets of the city perched on a donkey to let everyone know what it costs to challenge the appointment of the Pope by the Emperor . The cruel behavior of the emperor and the pope is counterproductive, however: they are criticized at that time, which is very harmful to their credit. Thus, the old abbot Nile Rossano left for Rome when he learns of the anti-mutilation, to host it in his monastery. But Gregory V. Otto III and reject this request. Nile would have called the eternal divine punishment on the emperor left Rome : - Nile Rossano's envoy to the emperor (Probably Gerbert of Aurillac). Similarly, when, after a hard seat, the imperial army managed to seize Crescentius (returning from an interview with the Emperor), the rebel was beheaded . His corpse is first hung on the battlements of Castel Sant'Angelo, and finally, with the bodies of twelve of his buddies, hanging upside down on Monte Mario , where he is exposed to the ravages of the public . The will of Otto III to impose a new Roman empire despite Roman desire for independence is no doubt that he built himself a palace on the Palatine Hill , where Roman emperors used to live, and organizes his court to the Byzantine manner . On an imperial decree of Otto III, dated April 28, 998 and on the abbey of Einsiedeln , whose date coincides with the execution of Crescentius appeared for the first time a seal bearing the motto Renovatio imperii Romanorum (Restoration of the Roman Empire) . This new currency then systematically figure on the imperial decrees until the return of Otto III in Gniezno, before being replaced in January 1001, by the formula Aurea Roma (Rome golden, radiant Rome). Anxious to appease the Roman nobility, it gratifies the local aristocracy loads the palate . However, it does not forget the terrible punishment endured by John XVI and Crescentius. Otto III asseoit imperial authority, and tent, with support from the pope to carry out reform of the church, weakening the aristocracy, quick to use simony. It issues certificates to bishoprics and abbeys and requires the secular aristocracy to return the church property it had seized . The fight against a parent of Crescentius, a count of the Sabine name Benedict, within this framework: they compel by force to return the property confiscated monastery of Farfa. In line with its predecessors, Otto attributed to the bishoprics of the prisoners. Episcopal charges, unlike loads of counts are restored to the Emperor on the death of the bishop, which avoids the weakening of the imperial heritage and thus to retain authority over its customers. When the bishop died Hildiward of Halberstadt , once one of the instigators of the dissolution of the bishopric of Merseburg in November 996, Otto III and Gregory V. tackle the reconstruction of the diocese and justifying it by a motion they are adopted by a synod of Christmas 998-99, that the dissolution pronounced in 981 was a breach of ecclesiastical law: the diocese was dissolved sine Concilio (without a vote ). It was not until 1014, during the reign of Otto's successor, the Emperor Henry II , the diocese of Merseburg is restored. In 999, Otto abandons business for some time a pilgrimage in Benevento on Mount Gargano , that Romuald , preacher from Einsiedeln , would have imposed atonement for atrocities committed against Crescentius Philagathos and Jean . Along the way, Otto learns that Gregory V has died in Rome. As he seeks to visit the father Nile in remission of his sins. But far from helping to find his credit, this approach is seen as an indication of vulnerability . Upon his return, he raised to the papal dignity his tutor Gerbert of Aurillac, who took the name Sylvester II. For the second consecutive time, the pope appointed is a non-Roman (Gerbert is straightforward). In Rome, he continues to strengthen its authority in awarding the bishoprics to his family. So he calls his own chaplain, Leo , bishop of Vercelli, giving him a diocese difficult as its predecessor Petrus Vercelli just been assassinated by Margrave Arduin of Ivrea. In 999, a Roman synod condemns Arduin to make amends. He was asked to lay down arms and not spend the night twice in the same place, to the extent his health permits. It may be exempt from this penalty when entering orders. Otto also attributed the succession of the bishop of Cologne Everger his chancellor Herbert. In December 999, Otto finally left Rome for a pilgrimage to Gnesen : he wants to pray at the tomb of his friend Adalbert . The hagiographies suggest that Otto would have gone to Gnesen to grab the relics of Adalbert. However, the monarch's motives are essentially religious. Upon his arrival in the city, Otto takes lead barefoot to the tomb of Adalbert by the Bishop of Posen Unger , and his prayers in tears, begging the martyrs to intercede for him with the Christ. Then he raised the town to the rank of archbishop, founded by the autonomous Church of Poland. The Archdiocese of Krakow and the new bishoprics of Kolberg and Breslau are attached to the new ecclesiastical province of Gnesen sit where a bishop Metropolitan. The kingdom of Boleslaw Chrobry is well equipped with an independent Church. Other activities at Otto Gnesen are controversial. The History of Poland Gallus Anonymus , which was written at the twelfth century, provides the only detailed account of events. She relates how forcefully Otto III was King Boleslaw , that the Saxon sources are systematically ignored. The fact that a coronation could take place today is much debated. The thesis of Johannes Fried, a German historian, that Gnesen have witnessed the creation of a purely civilian King , has recently been countered by Gerd Althoff , who at the coronation of Boleslaw Gnesen Only particularly lavish celebration of the pact of friendship with the Emperor Otto III . For his return to earth of the Empire, Boleslaw confided to the emperor a sumptuous and crew accompanies via Magdeburg to Aix-la-Chapelle. Here, Otto would have offered the throne of Charlemagne . Otto celebrates Palm Sunday in Magdeburg and Easter in Quedlinburg. Then, through Trebur , he returned to Aix-la-Chapelle, "the city he loved most after Rome" . During these months, it calls at several synods held in Magdeburg, Quedlinburg and Aix-la-Chapelle in the revival of the bishopric of Merseburg, but failed to wrest the decision. In Aix-la-Chapelle, he founded a church in honor of his friend Adalbert, martyred in Prussia, and gave him the relics of the missionary . He also locate and open the tomb of Charlemagne. Even in the eyes of his contemporaries, this behavior happens for a violation of burial, for which God would be punished by premature death . Currently we interpret the action of Otto as a first step towards the creation of the cult of Charlemagne . From Aix, he returned to Rome during the summer of the year one thousand. That's when the quarrel resumed Gandersheim, which opposes the bishop of Mainz Willigis to Bishop Bernard of Hildesheim : the consecration of a new church in Gandersheim necessitates a decision on the annexation of the parish one of the two bishoprics. Bishop Bernard took the time to go to Rome to argue his case before Otto III and a Roman synod. Therefore the approach of Bernard, two new synods meet almost simultaneously to decide the case of Gandersheim: one provincial Gandersheim to itself, and the other imperial Rome under the presidency of the Emperor and the Pope. However, neither these two conclaves, or one that follows, Phlde , fails to decide to take. The quarrel then occupies several emperors and many synods, before being finally resolved in 1030. The emperor spent the rest of the year in Italy without it comes out significant policy initiative. It was not until early 1001 for the power that manifests itself again, and that during an uprising of the people of Tivoli against the imperial authority. Otton then surrounded the city, although Bernward Vita, a eulogy of the Bishop Bernard composed by his teacher Thangmar , boasts more the role of Bernard in the submission of the rebels sustained . The same month that this seat is held in Tivoli, comes another unusual event, namely the publication of an imperial act of donation for the benefit of Pope Sylvester. This donation puts an end abruptly to the usual policy of the popes who, deprived of their territories by their own carelessness and incompetence, tried beyond any legal framework, it appropriated the rights and duties of the imperium. By this act, Otto is seen as the defender of the imperial authority against the Papacy. He denounced as "lies" the territorial claims of the Roman Church expressed in the Donation of Constantine , including the gift itself or its recovery by John Deacon , while dropping to St. Peter by pure benevolence of the imperial eight counties Pentapolis Italian . In the weeks following the publication of this deed of gift, an uprising broke out in Rome. It attributed the cause of the riot in the indolence of excessive power in the aftermath of Tivoli. It is contained peacefully after a few weeks by negotiation. The dean of Hildesheim, Thangmar who, in 1001, had accompanied his bishop Bernard of Hildesheim in Rome, reported the contents of a famous speech by Otto sent to the Romans during the negotiations by which the emperor have expressed the crowd's love for Rome and its ties to its complete cessation Saxon . Moved to tears by this profession of faith, the Romans capture of two men they molest cruelly to show their regret and their desire to return to civil peace. Despite these gestures of appeasement, the fickleness of public opinion inspires distrust advisors to the emperor, who hired away from hazards and to regroup his troops around Rome. Otto III and Pope Sylvester II away from Rome and take direction from north to Ravenna. Subsequently, Otto receiving Boleslaw Chobry Embassy, the Hungarian delegation concludes with the creation of a new province of the Church with the metropolis of diocese of Gran and ensures that the new archbishop, Astericus , crown king Prince Stephen of Hungary. Otto also makes further strengthen ties with the Doge of Venice. But sources hagiographic (the "Life of Blessed Romuald" of Peter Damian and the Life of Five Brothers "of Brown Querfurt ) give the same time rather the image of a monarch shot morally. The plight reflected in these stories culminated with the promise of Otto to renounce worldly things and take orders. It would in any case wanted to take another three years to correct the errors of his reign It is not known yet what the error was. Towards the end of 1001, he returned to Rome with the support of the quotas of some bishops of the Empire, who could not join Italy only very slowly. Having contracted a violent fever, he died January 23, 1002, at Manor Paterno, near Rome. Several sources have reported the death of the prince soothed and edifying Christian . The death of the Emperor is first kept secret, until his personal guard was notified and put on alert. The army, constantly surrounded by enemies, left Italy to fulfill the last wishes of Otto to be buried at Aix-la-Chapelle. In February 1002, when the convoy left from Paterno, through Lucca and Verona and penetrates in Bavaria, Duke Henri II supports for Polling and requires bishops and nobles, by threats and promises, they proclaim King . However, none of those accompanying the convoy, with the exception of the Bishop of Augsburg, have sided with Henry. It is unclear what prejudice Otto employees feel towards Henry. A few weeks later, during the celebrations of the emperor's death, these men confirm their refusal, in their view, Henry, in many respects, is not fit to govern the kingdom . Thus, while in Italy, from February 15, 1002, the Lombard barons have hailed king, Pavia, Arduin of Ivrea , opponent of Otto III, Duke Henry II continued to struggle in the midst of protracted negotiations and private quarrels. From the beginning of his reign, Henry II allows the celebrations for the salvation of the soul of his predecessor, his "beloved uncle", and for the memory of the "good emperor Otto . It highlights the last wills and legacies of Otto and, like him, he celebrates Palm Sunday in 1003 in Magdeburg, the grave of Otto I, and the feast of Easter in Quedlinburg, burial place of Henry I. and his wife Mathilde . But first, Henry II of Saxony, the new center of power. It thus leaves at least a decade before to attack his rival in Italy. It has long been seen in the abandonment by Henry II of registration of Otto III: Renovatio imperii Romanorum (Revival of the Roman Empire) on the benefit of imperial seals Renovatio regni Francorum (Renaissance of the Frankish kingdom) a shift decisive policy of the emperors. But more recently Knut Grich, German historian, drew attention to the number of seals involved: it is indeed necessary to report the twenty-three orders of Otto III to the four orders of Henry II. Thus, the casual and ephemeral of the certificate Franks, who appears only circumstantially after successful succession at the head of the kingdom in January and February 1003, is a form of authentication among all those we have received and was soon abandoned itself . En revanche, c'est bien un tournant que reprsente la politique extrieure d'Henri II en ce qui concerne les affaires polonaises ; car si, en l'an mil, Boleslas Chobry est gratifi de l'pithte de frre et appui de l'empereur , d' ami et alli du peuple romain ( t ), la politique d'Henri II tourne une confrontation arme, seulement rythme par les trois traits de paix successifs de Posen (1005), Mersebourg (1013), et Bautzen (1018). Les Ottoniens doivent leur prosprit et celle de leur empire l'encouragement et l'accompagnement des changes entre l'Europe du Nord et de l'Est et la Mditerrane, via les bassins du Rhin , de la Meuse et du Danube et leur connexion celui du P par les routes passant par les cols alpins. Ils dveloppent les changes en crant des ateliers de monnayage et, de ce fait, facilite les marchs. Ils alimentent ces ateliers de frappe montaire par l'exploitation de mines d'argent. C'est sous la rgence d'Adlade que le monnayage atteint son apoge en Germanie . Otton III s'inscrit dans cette politique conomique et montaire en autorisant, par exemple, l'vque de Freissing fonder un march quotidien et place la frquentation de ce march sous le de la paix impriale . L'autre moyen de remplir les cai sses is to create courts. These are sources of financial inputs in the form of reparations: the wergeld. Such as currency, they can express imperial authority throughout the empire. Thus, Otto III establishes a court at Ravenna , which is a rich archbishopric which regulates the whole of northern Italy and trade with Venice and Pavia Religious Policy If, since Otto I, the Church is subject to the emperors, the support of the latter to the monastic reform because it is the clerics who raise the princes and in return acquire real political influence . Otto III, raised by his mother in memories of Greek Byzantium and surrounded by priests since his childhood, nourished in the faith a very high opinion of the empire and a desire for monastic perfection . During his minority, the imperial power is gravely threatened by the great feudal lords, led by the Duke of Bavaria, Henry the Wrangler. It controls in effect the bishoprics in southern Germany, and therefore a powerful client allowing it to compete with the imperial power. Otto is therefore working to weaken this competition by forcing the lay aristocracy to return the church property which it has captured . He took advantage of this movement for monastic reform being promoted by Cluny or monasteries such as Lotharingian Gorze. This reform fight against simony and wants to have to respond to the papal authority. The emperor is even more favorable than it has been educated by scholars near the reformist movement. Therefore it awards degrees to bishoprics and abbeys that release of the authority of feudal lords. The Regent Theophano then the emperor himself working for the creation of powerful ecclesiastical principalities, bishoprics strengthened by granting counties and abbeys to the faithful. The best examples are Notger which is assigned a true principality Lige (in adjoining counties to the bishopric of Huy and Brunengeruz ) , and Gerbert d'Aurillac receiving the Archbishopric of Ravenna, on which 15 bishoprics: it controls all of northern Italy . In fact, it reinforces the imperial authority as follows: during the reign of Otto III that the influence of the Emperor on the Holy See is the biggest because it names the popes without refer to the Romans. It goes beyond the grip on the Church of his grandfather Otto I, to the extent that it no longer content to accept the outcome of a vote, but that it imposes its own candidate the Roman Curia. Ironically, Otto III ends the decadence of the Papacy by associating it with its projects of universal empire: he chooses to do so, the popes and brightest in tune with the political and cultural project . However, the pope appointed discretion and abroad ( Gregory V. Germain and is Sylvester II franc) has little support in Rome and more dependent on the support of the emperor. This power, obtained by the Otto military pressure down, in 996, Italy to support John XV expelled by the Romans. Rather than entering into conflict with the emperor, the Romans preferred to entrust the choice of successor to the late Pope John XV. This practice continues with its successors descended regularly in Italy with the imperial Ost to bring back order and will influence the choice of Pope . However, this fact is well accepted by the Roman nobility who never ceases to intrigue to use his powers as soon as the emperor and his army are far from the Italian peninsula. The sponsors are also Ottonian manuscripts luxury, but do not seem to have met artists at the court: the manuscripts are made luxury Corvey at Fulda and especially Reichenau from which the Gospels of Otto III and the Gospel Liuthar , representations of imperial great value for their care and political sense ( Offerings of the four provinces of the Empire , Otto III apotheosis of representative so maybe Otto I) . Finally, some significant architectural achievements in the field essentially religious, are marked by the double Carolingian and Byzantine inspiration, and contribute to the emergence of the novel. What it was under Otto III made the masterpiece of Ottonian architecture, St. Michael at Hildesheim , construction assigned the tutor of the Emperor, the Bishop Bernward. Otto III, who is Greek by his mother Theophano, not trying just as his grandfather Otto I to restore the Carolingian Empire, but attempts to restore a universal empire. His dream is an empire that would have the dignity to that of Byzantium and the effectiveness of one of Charlemagne . Adalbert Otto opens the mind towards the establishment of a universal empire, but Gerbert d'Aurillac theorizes that: he writes for a Treaty on the Emperor and the reasonable use of reason that s 'opens on a program of renovation of the Roman empire, whereas the emperor, half-Greek by his mother, is able to reconstruct a universal empire . The idea is that of a union of countries organized the same way, independent of the Germanic kingdom, with Rome for spiritual and political capital: Latin Christianity must rediscover its unity under the dual leadership of the pope and the emperor . This vast project of federal empire composed of peoples united by their common adherence to Christianity, without any submission vassalage, said Gerbert d'Aurillac and Otto have supported the emergence of independent Christian kingdoms of Germany in France, Poland , Hungary and Catalonia. The emperor having no male heir, he sent the bishop of Milan to seek the hand of a Byzantine princess, which would pave the way for reunification of the two halves of the Roman Empire . However, he died too fast for this project to materialize. In the year one thousand, Otto III was received at the meeting in Gniezno. He marries his daughter to the son of Boleslaw and charges imposed Mieszko are deleted, which means the recognition of Polish independence. The country is divided into autonomous ecclesiastical province with an archbishopric in Gniezno and three bishoprics in Krakow, Wroclaw and Kolobrzeg. Boleslaw back to the Emperor the right of nomination and appointment of bishops, thus ensuring the emancipation of the Polish Church . The role of the Battle of Lechfeld (955) in stopping invasions Hungarian is in fact limited, the Magyar people had already started its settlement. Prince Gza , seduced by power and cultural influence of the Ottonian Renaissance , works for a rapprochement with the West. Many missions are carried Christianity with its support. They are interrupted with the death of Otto I in 973, but may resume once the difficulties of the past imperial regency to 983. They are led by clerics Germanic but also Czech, in the wake of missionary Adalbert of Prague , teacher and close friend of Otto III, who would name the future Stephen I. c. 995. Pursuing its policy of Christianization and rapprochement with the West, Prince Gza based, to 996, the Benedictine monastery of Pannonhalma and the first bishop of Veszprm Hungary . To strengthen links with the emerging empire, he married his son Stephen to Gisele , daughter of Henry the Wrangler. the consideration of this union is the attribution of a strip of territory north of the Leitha and promise to complete promptly the evangelization of his people. On the death of Gza (997), tribal leaders trying to stop the reforms initiated. They contrast the young Stephen, however, appointed as his successor by Gza, his old cousin Koppany who meet the traditional criteria of transmission of princely power in Hungary, presents itself as the champion of "reaction" against dangerous innovations Magyar inflows West . But he was defeated by Stephen in a few months with the military assistance provided by the Bavarian knights, who are rewarded with permission to settle in Hungary. He considers his political future depends on the appropriation of Western methods. He sees himself already as king, as the written sources attribute to him before his father and his grandfather, but he needs a symbol making him a Christian king, the anointed of the Lord, as are Frankish kings and emperors Germanic in the continuity of biblical kings. It sends a delegation to the pope, who is even better received than his approach is the project of empire federal caressed by Sylvester II and Otto III. The detail is important: Stephen would never have wanted to do this had been done by the Czech dukes a few decades earlier, that is to say pledge allegiance to the Holy Roman Emperor in exchange for recognition of their monarchical authority. The only consideration is to provide a commitment to complete the conversion of the Magyars . In 1000 (December 25) or 1001 (January 1), the height of the papal blessing, Prince Stephen was crowned king in Esztergom , with the crown he had received from Sylvester II. The young king immediately fulfill its commitments to missions reviving conversion. It imposes on its subjects a regular religious practice and maintenance of the local clergy, the law requires that people build their own (in groups of ten villages) churches that serve as their place of worship every Sunday . He founded a national church, headed by the Archbishop of Esztergom. Initially limited to Transdanubia, which has long controlled the princes rpd , it includes a dozen dioceses at the end of the reign. Stephen is completing the monastery and endowed it generously Pannonhalma, as evidenced by the charter of 1002, whose text has been preserved. It multiplies the Benedictine monastic foundations and fills the new settlements of land . It was under the leadership of Venice that Christianity grew along the Dalmatian coast. The alliance of Venice, which seeks to free itself from the Byzantine Empire, is quite natural. It is certified by the doge who made Otto the godfather of his son and daughter . The Italian policy of Otto raises obvious misunderstanding of his contemporaries. According to the Annals of Quedlinburg , which faithfully reflect the views of their monasteries and Ottonian royal abbess, that the aunt and sister of Otto III, Emperor wishes to mark his preference for the Romans on the other people . But they refrain from criticizing the policy of Otto III's death, which occurs as a consequence of his own sins or those of strangers, is deplored by the entire world . Dithmar, bishop of Merseburg (or Thietmar or Dietmar), whose narrative is steeped in the idea that the dissolution of the Bishopric of Merseburg was a profound injustice, disapproval of the Italian policy of Otto III. Thus, according to him, the emperor had in his palace, dined on a table in a semicircle worn by his relatives, any use contrary to the habits of course Frankish and Saxon . Still later, Bruno Querfurt accuses the emperor of Rome wanted to have his usual residence and having considered his true home . In the words of Bruno, which aims to hagiography, Rome symbolizes the overcoming of pagan worship by Christian beliefs, with its pagan monarch, the City has lost its spiritual universal, her journey over the Donation of Constantine , is the city of the apostles, which no longer secular monarch shall reign. Therefore the repression against the seat of the apostles is a sin to Bruno so serious that the premature death of the Emperor is seen as an inevitable punishment . But Bruno Querfurt greet some nice features to the Emperor, as his warm temperament: a child and delivered to the errors of his behavior, he made a good emperor, Augustus Imperator of profound humanity . Also Otto III, with its unusual culture and finesse recognized, soon he not get the admiration of all and is known both in Germany and in Italy, "Wonder of the World" . The critical judgments of contemporary leading circles usually rubbed off on the work of historians of the nineteenth and early twentieth century. The opinion on Otto III was long one expressed by Wilhelm von Giesebrecht in his History of the Holy Roman Empire (Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit), basically criticizing the lack of national sentiment in Otto III and reproached his dreams and his lack of pragmatism. Even worse, Otto III had squandered a large inheritance from his frivolity, and chimeras have continued to be committed with intellectuals and foreigners . Giesebrecht forged designs nationalist historians for decades. In the early twentieth century, several specific objections handed into question the conventional wisdom. With his book, Kaiser, Rom und Renovatio (1929), historian Percy Ernst Schramm has imposed a new image of Otto III. His new portrait of the emperor, contradicting the traditional image of the sovereign non-Germanic and evaporated bigot, was pardoned in that Schramm was trying to capture Otto III in the religious turmoil of his time. The novelty resides in a historical-religious policy of Otto III, that the political rebirth of Rome was the true motivation of the government of the emperor. Schramm gave as proof of this essential political rebirth adoption, from 998, the Renovatio imperii Romanorum famous motto on the seal. Robert Holtzmann, German historian, joined again in 1941 in his History of the Saxon emperors (Geschichte der Kaiserzeit Schsischen) point of view Giesebrecht and concluded: "The State of Otto the Great shook on its foundations lorsqu'Otton III died. If the emperor had lived longer, his empire would have collapsed . Towards the end of World War II , opinions about Otto III in the vein of Holtzmann have become rarer. Mathilde Uhlirz, Austrian historian, completed in 1954 the views of Schramm, considering the policy of the Emperor rather in terms of consolidating the power of the prince in the southern regions of the Empire, and thus lending Otto III to the intention to strengthen its authority . Unlike Schramm Uhlirz focused on collaboration between the emperor and the pope, who was especially anxious to win Poland and Hungary to the Christian spirituality of Roman . Subsequently, it became a synthesis between the points of view and Uhlirz Schramm, who sees the efforts to consolidate the imperial authority in the South, much as in the rapprochement with Poland and Hungary the main lines of policy of Otto III. But the persistent attempts to explain the policy of Otto III by his character and personality traits. In recent years, meaning that Schramm has given the term renovatio has been challenged repeatedly. According to Knut Grich requires analysis of Italian politics and campaigns against Rome rather as a concern for sustainability of the papacy as a program that regeneration of the Roman Empire . Gerd Althoff has recently turned political concepts used in medieval history, he considers anachronistic, since instead of writing and the institutional equivalent to elude us understand the kingdom in the Middle Ages . In addition, according to Althoff, the sources cited in support are ambivalent. It is unclear whether the link with the tradition of ancient Rome or that of Christian Rome . A poem from the eleventh century, in which the Imperial Councillor Leo of Vercelli sings the collaboration of the emperor and the pope, discusses the reconstruction of the Roman Empire by Otto III. The poem begins with an invocation especially to Christ, so that he deigns to wear eye on Rome and restore its luster, so it can flourish under the reign of the third Otto. Since the sixteenth century, Otto III, by its very short life and the dramatic events that marked his reign, serves as the title character in numerous literary evidence, but few have been able to survive by their literary value. In his poem The Lament of the Emperor Otto III (Klagelied Kaiser Otto III.) August von Platen-Hallermnde belittles Otto III by pure nationalism. The historian and philosopher Ricarda Huch in her book Rmisches Reich Deutscher Nation (1934), compared to Otto III Otto I : his rejection of Otto III builds on the ideas of Giesebrecht . But the judgments in favor of career of Otto III also expressed in the literature. And appear towards the end of the Second World War, two historical novels on the Ottonian Emperor. Gertrud Bumer, German politician of the Movement for the Liberation of Women, gives his reconstruction of the life of Otto III as the young man in the cloak of stars: grandeur and tragedy of Otto III (Der im Jngling Sternenmantel. Gre und Tragik Ottos III). And simultaneously, Albert H. Rausch (Henry Benrath his pseudonym), German author, attempts to capture the personality of Otto III in a more subjective and with more emphasis. It is for him to understand {{citation | spirituality in the life of a monarch " . Europe Ottonian
The empire: economic power
The Church, the cornerstone of the administration Ottonian
The power of the great feudal
Borders threatened
Biography
Regency Period
A difficult start
The war of succession
The regency of the empress (985-994)
Education Otto
The beginning of the reign
The Emperor Otto III
The imperial coronation and the first Italian campaign
Second Italian Campaign
The stay in Italy (997-999)
Intervention in Eastern Europe
Return to Rome
The death of the Emperor
The estate of Otto III
Bilan du rgne
Politique conomique et montaire
Cultural policy
Diplomatic Policy
Restoration of a universal empire
Kingdom of Poland
Kingdom of Hungary
Alliance with Venice
The image of Otto III
The testimony of time
Historiography
Otto III in poetry and novels
Sources
Primary sources and vitae
General Presentations
Biographies
Articles of encyclopedia
See also
Internal Links
External Links
References
Notes
Preceded by Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor Followed by Otto II Emperor
Roman
Germanic Henry II Articles frames Motte Feudalism Peace of God Ottonian Renaissance 
Sovereigns Hugh Capet Robert the Pious Otto I Otto II Otto III Borrell II Popes Gregory V Sylvester II Literati Abbo of Fleury Adalberon Rheims Gerbert d'Aurillac Helgaud Fleury Richer of Reims Historiography Terrors of the year one thousand 
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