Swedish
Swedish is a Germanic language spoken in Sweden and Finland History For history before the thirteenth century , see the article on Old Norse. In the twelfth century , the dialects spoken in what is now called Sweden and Denmark have begun to distinguish themselves from each other, then parted in the thirteenth century to form the dialects of Old Swedish and the old Danish. One of the crucial differences is phonological: in Old Danish (unlike the old Swedish), the diphthongs primary AEI, and the y monophthongs were totally in e and (for the last two),. It gives the name of Old Swedish in the Swedish language spoken in the Middle Ages from 1225. Among the most important documents from this period, we find the oldest penal code area ( Vstgtalagen , the Criminal Code of Western Gotland ), preserved in fragments dating back to 1250. The main influence of the Swedish suffered at that time came the establishment of the Catholic Church and its various monastic orders, who introduced many words borrowed from Latin and Greek. The syntax of Latin influenced particularly complex written language. With the boom that gripped the Hanse , and that made it a major economic power, political and military between the late thirteenth century and the beginning of the fourteenth, the Low German exerted a profound influence on Swedish and Danish. This influence was such that several Swedish cities counted germanophones nationals in their shops and their administrations. In addition to a large number of loan words within the vocabulary of war, commerce, crafts and bureaucracy, they are even basic expressions, such as prefixes or suffixes, or conjunctions were directly borrowed from German. Be-, age-and-fr found in early Swedish words often come prefixes be-, ge-and-vor. The old word for an opening in a wall - vindga (cf. Danish contemporary Vindu) - was replaced by the word Fonst (German Fenster). The word became eldhus kk (kitchen, German Kche), Galda became betala (pay bezahlen German), Tung became Sprk (Language, German Sprache), and the word begynna (beginnen German) appeared with its synonym Borja. Many within the maritime vocabulary words were also borrowed from Dutch. The change in Swedish under the influence of Low German was facilitated by the fact that Swedish was already, because of its origins, a language similar to German. Low German and shared many words with the Scandinavian dialects. For example, borgar (lord) is a loan in High German, while borg (castle) is Scandinavian riddare (jumper) is a borrowing from Low German, but rida (ride) is Scandinavian, Kopman is a borrowing Low German, while Kopa (buy) and man (man) belong to the former capital of the language (and the situation is the same for frbjuda, fr, and bjuda). Loans to low-and German are quite different from those to be taken later to more foreign languages. Swedish was spoken as the early Middle Ages was quite different from the contemporary language. The most obvious differences may be of a grammatical case and gender formed a more complex system. Nouns, adjectives, pronouns and certain numerals are declined in four cases, which included, in addition to the nominative and genitive that still exist today, a dative and an accusative. The gender system remember that the contemporary Swedish. Most male and female names were combined into a single genus, is called in Swedish grammar utrum (formerly royal). The combination was also much more complex, including indicative and subjunctive, the verb varies in number and in person. Towards the sixteenth century, the grammar of everyday language and secular literature was extremely simplified, and closely resembles the Swedish today. Older versions, however, still exerted themselves in solemn prose until the seventeenth century, and still exist today in some dialects. The use of ligatures (such as ) in Scandinavia is different from that which prevailed in Romania. The aa sequences of letters and oe were often written with one of the letters found on top of each other. This helped to form later letters , and. It is difficult to date precisely when dialects such as Gotnie or Alvdal began to separate from the standard Swedish. However, we can say that the dialect of Swedish Gotnie separated long before the Danish. The state of the modern Swedish language called (nysvenska) begins his history with the introduction of printing and the Reformation. After taking office and his election as king, Gustav Vasa ordered a Swedish translation of the Bible, thus undergoing a strong influence of Protestant religious leader Martin Luther. A version of the New Testament appeared in 1526, and was followed by a full translation of the Bible in 1541, often called the Bible of Gustav Vasa (Gustav Vasas bibels). This translation was considered successful if it was - after several revisions - the most widely used until 1917. The people behind this translation were Andr Laurentius and the brothers Laurentius and Olaus Petri. Most of the translators came from central Sweden (Mid-Sweden), a region whose dialects so profoundly influenced the language used. Gustav Vasa Bible was considered a good compromise between language use old and new. Although its use of language is not fully consistent with the language of his time, such use was not extremely conservative. With it, a big step was taken towards a more successful spelling of the Swedish language: it imposed, for example the use of graphemes , and , use instead of ck kk after short vowels, and the original spelling of och (the conjunction). The translators were supposed to produce a language understandable by itself: to do so, they avoided both loans to Danish and German as extremely heavy syntactic constructs modeled on Latin. The resulting text was written in a language respecting the Swedish tradition, which led to the emergence of modern Swedish. Even if the bible of Gustav Vasa scored heavily used alternative spellings, and led to a stabilization of the tongue in the sixteenth century the spelling again became more random. Discussions on the spelling itself did not take place before the seventeenth century, after writing the first grammar of Swedish. An ecclesiastical law of 1686 was fraught with consequences for the ability of ordinary people to read and write Swedish. She gave the priests responsible for verifying if the common people know the important passages of the Bible and the small catechism of Luther. Thus literacy knew at that time an important development in Sweden. Swenska ordesktsel, written in 1680 by Samuel Columbus recommended the use of Swedish, and use a written language that was similar to oral language. In the second half of the seventeenth century, the kings Charles XI and Charles XII of Sweden ordered the priests and diplomats to promote the Swedish language at the expense of other languages as well as foreign words. In the seventeenth century, French was the language commonly used in royal families of Europe and within the nobility. The French, through the Enlightenment and the interest that could then have the culture, was the source of many loans in the eighteenth century: at this time that it was borrowed words like mbel (<furniture) balkong (<balcony), garderob (<wardrobe), Salonga (<salon), parfym (<perfume), Mustasch (<mustache), kastrull (<pan) Balett (<ballet) and pjs (<room only in the dramatic sense). Also at that time formed an educated middle class and reading the newspaper, allowing the development of a language journalism. A scientific language also appeared as a result of the success of several Swedish scientists such as Carl von Linn and Anders Celsius. In the eighteenth century appeared the Legal Code of the Kingdom of Sweden (Sweriges Rikes lag), in a modern language. It was then along came also many grammars and recommendations that modernized the written language. The Swedish Academy was founded in 1786: its aim was to promote "purity, vigor and grandeur" of the Swedish language. During the nineteenth century appeared the vocabularies of the industry, travel and sport. Many words were then imported from English: RALs, Lokomotiv station (station), jobb, strejk, bojkott, turist, sport and rekord. Controversies about the different spellings ran throughout the nineteenth century, and was not completed until the early twentieth century to form a globally accepted standard enough. For example, the use of capital was not standardized, and largely followed the propensities of individual users, on which the German (the language in which, even today, common names are written with a capital letter) had much influence. Among the events of the nineteenth century the most serious consequences for the language, one can mention the Treaty of Carl Gustaf Leopold (sv) on spelling, introduced into popular schools in 1842, and the list of words of the Academy Swedish 1874. Among the pronunciation changes that took place during this period include the gradual assimilation of consonant clusters in / / (or / / dialects in the South), and loss of sonority of the consonants / g / and / d / before vowels before. It gives the name of contemporary Swedish (nusvenska) state that the language is today, and since about 1900. With industrialization and urbanization of Sweden - already well under way as early as 1890 - these are new categories of people who are beginning to enter the Swedish literature. Many new writers, politicians and other public figures exerted a profound influence on the national language that was developing. If we seek a single starting point, we can set the year 1879 (that of the Red Chamber), and the breakthrough of August Strindberg (1849-1912), one of the most influential writers. A spelling reform, initiated by the Minister of Religious Affairs Fridtjuv Berg (sv) in 1906, made a bright line with what was called later the old spelling: haf became hav (root of the verb to have), Rodt became Rotter (adjective given to gender neutral red), etc.. Spelling Rule - not so old you might think - that makes the difference between past participles and supins (huset r mladt, jag har malate: the house is painted, I painted), is part of some one still missing at this time. The disappearance of the spelling hv, for example at the top of HVEM question words (who), hvar (where), have been singled out by many, because it repelled Swedish Danish and Norwegian. It was during the twentieth century that a national language common, standardized, came within reach of the vast majority of Swedes. The spelling was standardized and finally almost completely unified reform since 1906. With the exception of the plural forms of verbs (such as vi komma, we come, while the modern spelling kommer vi) and some specific differences in word order, especially in written language (eg reverse och att ... beslutade styrelsen, where the subject comes after the verb styrelsen beslutade when the proposal begins with a preposition as och), language was essentially identical to the Swedish spoken today. The plural forms remained, but were less used, and finally disappeared in 1950, when the last official recommendations about their use were removed. The most visible change consisted in a shortening of the uses of Swedish formal to go to the easiest to read and pronounce. The most obvious examples are the shortening of a few very common verbs: Tager became tar (make), became kla iklda sig i sig (dressing). Skall (auxiliary denoting the future) seems to return, but it is yet written in general as it shortened ska. During the years 1970 and 1980 appeared as sensitive forms instead of sedan (adverb then, cf. English then), instead of nan Nagon (pronoun someone, or some factor), Dom instead of or dem ( personal pronoun third person plural), instead of dig bf (if the object pronoun of second person singular). This seems to have been extinct Olympi. Conjunctions ehuru, Darest ity and have lost ground compared with their counterparts from the spoken language: fast, and drfr om. Since the 1970s , development (and manufacture) of a Swedish general use, understandable, orally, formed one of the most crucial battle for the language. A significant change in the social reality of the language came in the 1960s with the so-called reform of you (du-Reformen). It was previously assumed that it was best to speak to people from a social status comparable to his or higher using a title and surname. The use of Herr (sir), fru (lady) and Frken (miss) was generally restricted to conversation with people whose profession, academic titles or military rank was not known to their partner. It is sometimes posed the question of whether to address his interlocutor in the third person. To resolve this problem, expressions like vad fr det lov att vara? Or heap i det socker kaffet? (Using the passive voice: Is the sugar is taken in the cafe?) Were used. In the early twentieth century, many tried to replace the complicated system of securities by the pronoun you, like what was done in French or German. You (ni), however, was quickly used as an alternative somewhat less arrogant of you (from, or third person) to cater to persons of low social status. With liberalization and a shift to the left of Swedish society during the second half of the twentieth century, these class differences became less relevant and (you) became the usual term of address, even within the communities most formal and official. The so-called new vous ("det nya niandet) at supermarket checkouts or in some service jobs, is a marginal phenomenon. Swedish is a language belonging to the branch Nordic or Scandinavian of the Germanic group of the family of Indo-European languages. It is spoken in Sweden and Finland Official status Swedish is the de facto national language of Sweden and one of the official languages of Finland (with Finnish ) on the archipelago of land is the only official language. There are also three municipalities in Finland where Swedish is the only official language at the municipal level. One of them, Korsns , has the highest rate of native Swedish speakers (98%). In 2006 , a proposal was made in the Swedish Riksdag to give it official status. This proposal had the support of the right block, as well as the Green Party, which voted overwhelmingly in its favor. However, due to an error in vote counting Governance and Standards There is no real establishment of standards for the Swedish language. From 1526 to 1917, the Swedish translations of the Bible formed the norm, but the official translation of 1917 has not caught up over the developments. To replace these translations, the Swedish TT news agency was established in 1922, she is responsible for radio news in 1925, and was recognized as modern standard since. Today, the Swedish Academy also supports the normalization of Swedish. It is directed by Peter Englund. Swedish uses the Latin alphabet , with letters bearing diacritical (a round head ), (a umlaut or umlaut ) and , which appear in dictionaries as a result of the letter z. Regarding the Scandinavian languages, to meet in the Danish and Norwegian , but in these languages the letters and are the respective equivalents letters and , in Icelandic, we use and for the latter two characters, while is not (its equivalent is) and that others exist diacritics (, , , , , and the two consonants and special ). Characters and are found also in other languages, some Germans (like German ), and others not (the Finnish example, which also employs, although very rarely, in some words borrowed from Swedish). Swedish is a Germanic language in the conjugation and grammar simple, with no cases (except for a remnant of the genitive), in which words can be modified by the addition of prefixes, suffixes or simple concatenation of words. In conjugation, for example, a person has mostly no effect on the verbal form. Thus for the verb att g (walk) we have: The definite article is enclitic and postponed it to say that it is welded to the end of the name. There is no plural indefinite article. Thus, for dag, plural Agar: Much of the Swedish vocabulary of Germanic origin. We distinguish the native Germanic funds, and borrowings from other Germanic languages via the German and Dutch (in general, of Low German, because of its status as lingua franca of the Hanseatic area) and some borrowings from English. The Swedish words hus (house), kung (king) and "gas" (goose) are of Germanic origin. Most terms of religious or scientific vocabulary is of Greek or Latin, often borrowed via French or, more recently, English. Several of these formations words are bonds, such as the word "bomull" (cotton), German "Baumwolle" (the layer trdull was not accepted). Swedish in Finland sometimes specific terms close to the corresponding Finnish words, particularly in the legal and administrative vocabulary. Forming new words easily synthesized as in other Germanic languages. Just like what happens in German and Dutch, these compound words can become very long and difficult to use. For example, produktionsstyrningssystemsprogramvaruuppdatering means alone update the software of the control system of production. But there are many examples of very common and convenient. Another very productive method for building new words is to add the ending-a to a name to form a new verb, such as "bilateral" (travel by car "after" bil "," car ") and "pack" ("package" after "paket", "package"). The reverse is also possible formation: forming, for example the word (relatively recent) "tank", a synonym for "tankestt" ("thought"). The Swedish words borrowed from French back mainly seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. They are mostly related to the fields of culture, theater and restaurants. The French spelling was adapted to Swedish phonetics. Examples: Before these borrowings from French, Swedish language was also influenced by Low German at the time of the Hanseatic League , with words relating to commerce and navigation. Most recent borrowings come from English, including words for new technologies. Old Norse
Old Swedish
Swedish Modern (nysvenska)
Contemporary Swedish (nusvenska)
Classification
Geographic distribution
Dialects
Writing
Languages Germ. Scand. Swedish Icelandic () Danish Norwegian German - Fin.-Ugra. Finnish Pronunciation Summary table of the pronunciation of Swedish
b c d f g h j k l Grammar French This Past I walk Jag gr Jag Gick You walk Du gr Du Gick He walks Han gr Han Gick We walk Vi gr Vi Gick You walk Ni gr Neither Gick They walk RBM Of Gick Undefined Defined one day by dag day by dag days Agar day Agar na Glossary
Loans in French
ftlj chair byr office Adjoa farewell Kommod convenient evenemang event kotlet chop parfym perfume restaurang restaurant rida curtain Talang talent scen scene niv level teater theater toalett toilet Borrowing from other Germanic languages
Dictionaries
Examples
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